Cryosphere
Much of the hydrology of the HMA region is controlled by cryospheric variations, but there is considerable variability in the partitioning of runoff contributions between snowmelt, glacier melt and rainfall. For example, the high alpine regions of the western Himalaya see greater impacts of glacier variations on streamflow than in the eastern HMA where monsoon rains dominate the hydrograph. High erosion rates across the HMA contribute to considerable debris cover on glacier surfaces which complicates the glacier modeling. Black carbon and dust deposition on glacier and snowpack surfaces is occurring in greater quantities across the HMA and have significant impacts on the surface energy budget.