diff --git a/crates/pdf-font/src/encoding.rs b/crates/pdf-font/src/encoding.rs
index add15b4..214fb2e 100644
--- a/crates/pdf-font/src/encoding.rs
+++ b/crates/pdf-font/src/encoding.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 use std::{borrow::Cow, convert::TryFrom};
 
-use pdf_object::{object_resolver::ObjectResolver, object_variant::ObjectVariant};
+use pdf_object::{
+    dictionary::Dictionary, object_resolver::ObjectResolver, object_variant::ObjectVariant,
+};
 
 use crate::error::FontError;
 
@@ -127,8 +129,24 @@ impl Encoding {
 }
 
 impl Encoding {
+    /// Parse the optional `/Encoding` entry from a font dictionary.
     pub fn from_dictionary(
-        dictionary: &pdf_object::dictionary::Dictionary,
+        dictionary: &Dictionary,
+        objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
+    ) -> Result<Option<Self>, FontError> {
+        dictionary
+            .get("Encoding")
+            .map(|value| match objects.resolve_object(value)? {
+                ObjectVariant::Dictionary(encoding_dictionary) => {
+                    Self::from_encoding_dictionary(encoding_dictionary, objects)
+                }
+                other => Self::from_base_encoding(FontEncoding::from(other.try_str(objects)?)),
+            })
+            .transpose()
+    }
+
+    fn from_encoding_dictionary(
+        dictionary: &Dictionary,
         objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
     ) -> Result<Self, FontError> {
         let mut encoding = match dictionary.get("BaseEncoding") {
diff --git a/crates/pdf-font/src/fallback.rs b/crates/pdf-font/src/fallback.rs
index dd328f8..1651471 100644
--- a/crates/pdf-font/src/fallback.rs
+++ b/crates/pdf-font/src/fallback.rs
@@ -1,16 +1,9 @@
 use pdf_cmap::ToUnicodeCMap;
-use pdf_object::{
-    dictionary::Dictionary, object_lookup::ObjectLookupExt, object_resolver::ObjectResolver,
-    object_variant::ObjectVariant,
-};
+use pdf_object::{dictionary::Dictionary, object_resolver::ObjectResolver};
 
 use crate::{
-    cid_system_info::CidOrdering,
-    encoding::{Encoding, FontEncoding},
-    error::FontError,
-    flags::FontFlags,
-    simple_font_glyph_map::SimpleFontGlyphWidthsMap,
-    standard14::Standard14Font,
+    cid_system_info::CidOrdering, encoding::Encoding, error::FontError, flags::FontFlags,
+    simple_font_glyph_map::SimpleFontGlyphWidthsMap, standard14::Standard14Font,
     true_type_font::TrueTypeFont,
 };
 
@@ -26,7 +19,7 @@ impl FallbackFontProgram {
         dictionary: &Dictionary,
         objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
     ) -> Result<Self, FontError> {
-        let flags = descriptor_flags(dictionary, objects)?;
+        let flags = FontFlags::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)?;
         let standard14 = Standard14Font::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects, flags);
         let is_cjk = is_cjk_cid_font(dictionary, objects)?;
 
@@ -51,7 +44,9 @@ pub(crate) fn fallback_true_type_from_dictionary(
 ) -> Result<TrueTypeFont, FontError> {
     let fallback = FallbackFontProgram::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)?;
     let widths = SimpleFontGlyphWidthsMap::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)?;
-    let encoding = simple_font_encoding(dictionary, objects);
+    let encoding = Encoding::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)
+        .ok()
+        .flatten();
     let to_unicode = to_unicode_cmap(dictionary, objects)?;
 
     Ok(TrueTypeFont {
@@ -73,7 +68,7 @@ pub(crate) fn fallback_true_type_from_dictionary_best_effort(
     dictionary: &Dictionary,
     objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
 ) -> TrueTypeFont {
-    let flags = descriptor_flags(dictionary, objects).unwrap_or_default();
+    let flags = FontFlags::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects).unwrap_or_default();
     let is_cjk = is_cjk_cid_font(dictionary, objects).unwrap_or(false);
     let standard14 = Standard14Font::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects, flags);
     let fallback = fallback_program(flags, standard14, is_cjk);
@@ -106,55 +101,6 @@ fn fallback_program(
     }
 }
 
-/// Read font descriptor flags from a font dictionary.
-///
-/// # Paramaters
-///
-/// - `dictionary`: The PDF font dictionary that may contain `/FontDescriptor`.
-/// - `objects`: The resolver used to dereference indirect PDF objects.
-///
-/// # Returns
-///
-/// The parsed descriptor flags, or empty flags when the descriptor or `/Flags`
-/// entry is absent.
-pub(crate) fn descriptor_flags(
-    dictionary: &Dictionary,
-    objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
-) -> Result<FontFlags, FontError> {
-    let Some(descriptor) = dictionary.optional_dictionary("FontDescriptor", objects)? else {
-        return Ok(FontFlags::empty());
-    };
-
-    Ok(descriptor
-        .get("Flags")
-        .and_then(|obj| obj.try_number::<u32>(objects).ok())
-        .map(FontFlags::from_bits_truncate)
-        .unwrap_or_default())
-}
-
-/// Parse a simple font encoding from a font dictionary.
-///
-/// # Paramaters
-///
-/// - `dictionary`: The PDF font dictionary that may contain `/Encoding`.
-/// - `objects`: The resolver used to dereference indirect PDF objects.
-///
-/// # Returns
-///
-/// The parsed encoding when `/Encoding` is present and supported.
-fn simple_font_encoding(dictionary: &Dictionary, objects: &dyn ObjectResolver) -> Option<Encoding> {
-    dictionary.get("Encoding").and_then(|enc_obj| {
-        let resolved = objects.resolve_object(enc_obj).ok()?;
-        match resolved {
-            ObjectVariant::Dictionary(d) => Encoding::from_dictionary(d, objects).ok(),
-            _ => {
-                let base = FontEncoding::from(resolved.try_str(objects).ok()?);
-                Encoding::from_base_encoding(base).ok()
-            }
-        }
-    })
-}
-
 /// Parse an optional ToUnicode CMap from a font dictionary.
 ///
 /// # Paramaters
diff --git a/crates/pdf-font/src/flags.rs b/crates/pdf-font/src/flags.rs
index b08fb09..638fe74 100644
--- a/crates/pdf-font/src/flags.rs
+++ b/crates/pdf-font/src/flags.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,9 @@
 use bitflags::bitflags;
+use pdf_object::{
+    dictionary::Dictionary, object_lookup::ObjectLookupExt, object_resolver::ObjectResolver,
+};
+
+use crate::error::FontError;
 
 bitflags! {
     /// Font descriptor flags as defined in ISO 32000-1, Table 123.
@@ -20,3 +25,21 @@ bitflags! {
         const FORCE_BOLD   = 1 << 18; // spec bit 19
     }
 }
+
+impl FontFlags {
+    /// Read font descriptor flags from a font dictionary.
+    pub(crate) fn from_dictionary(
+        dictionary: &Dictionary,
+        objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
+    ) -> Result<Self, FontError> {
+        let Some(descriptor) = dictionary.optional_dictionary("FontDescriptor", objects)? else {
+            return Ok(Self::empty());
+        };
+
+        Ok(descriptor
+            .get("Flags")
+            .and_then(|value| value.try_number::<u32>(objects).ok())
+            .map(Self::from_bits_truncate)
+            .unwrap_or_default())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/pdf-font/src/true_type_font.rs b/crates/pdf-font/src/true_type_font.rs
index e4ab911..5d7fe9d 100644
--- a/crates/pdf-font/src/true_type_font.rs
+++ b/crates/pdf-font/src/true_type_font.rs
@@ -3,16 +3,11 @@ use std::collections::HashMap;
 use pdf_cmap::ToUnicodeCMap;
 use pdf_object::{
     dictionary::Dictionary, object_lookup::ObjectLookupExt, object_resolver::ObjectResolver,
-    object_variant::ObjectVariant,
 };
 
 use crate::{
-    encoding::{Encoding, FontEncoding},
-    error::FontError,
-    fallback::FallbackFontProgram,
-    flags::FontFlags,
-    font_data::FontData,
-    simple_font_glyph_map::SimpleFontGlyphWidthsMap,
+    encoding::Encoding, error::FontError, fallback::FallbackFontProgram, flags::FontFlags,
+    font_data::FontData, simple_font_glyph_map::SimpleFontGlyphWidthsMap,
     standard14::Standard14Font,
 };
 
@@ -37,8 +32,8 @@ pub struct TrueTypeFont {
     pub flags: FontFlags,
 }
 
-struct TrueTypeFontProgram {
-    font_file: FontData,
+pub(crate) struct TrueTypeFontProgram {
+    pub(crate) font_file: FontData,
     standard14: Option<Standard14Font>,
     flags: FontFlags,
 }
@@ -66,7 +61,7 @@ impl TrueTypeFont {
         dictionary: &Dictionary,
         objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
     ) -> Result<Self, FontError> {
-        let program = Self::read_font_program(dictionary, objects)?;
+        let program = Self::read_font_file(dictionary, objects)?;
         // Read the `/Widths` entry.
         let widths = SimpleFontGlyphWidthsMap::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)?;
 
@@ -74,18 +69,9 @@ impl TrueTypeFont {
         // dictionary (with optional BaseEncoding + Differences).  Errors are
         // treated as absent encoding rather than propagated, since TrueType fonts
         // often omit or mis-specify this entry.
-        let encoding: Option<Encoding> = dictionary
-            .get("Encoding")
-            .and_then(|enc_obj| {
-                let resolved = objects.resolve_object(enc_obj).ok()?;
-                match resolved {
-                    ObjectVariant::Dictionary(d) => Encoding::from_dictionary(d, objects).ok(),
-                    _ => {
-                        let base = FontEncoding::from(resolved.try_str(objects).ok()?);
-                        Encoding::from_base_encoding(base).ok()
-                    }
-                }
-            })
+        let encoding = Encoding::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)
+            .ok()
+            .flatten()
             .or_else(|| Self::default_simple_encoding(program.flags, program.standard14));
 
         // Parse optional ToUnicode CMap stream.
@@ -156,28 +142,15 @@ impl TrueTypeFont {
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
-    /// Returns the font file bytes as [`FontData`] or a [`FontError`] if
-    /// reading or decompressing the font stream fails or if the font dictionary or its
-    /// `/FontDescriptor` entry is invalid.
+    /// Returns the resolved font program and its fallback metadata, or a
+    /// [`FontError`] if reading the font dictionary or stream fails.
     pub(crate) fn read_font_file(
         dictionary: &Dictionary,
         objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
-    ) -> Result<(FontData, FontFlags), FontError> {
-        let program = Self::read_font_program(dictionary, objects)?;
-        Ok((program.font_file, program.flags))
-    }
-
-    fn read_font_program(
-        dictionary: &Dictionary,
-        objects: &dyn ObjectResolver,
     ) -> Result<TrueTypeFontProgram, FontError> {
-        if let Some(descriptor) = dictionary.optional_dictionary("FontDescriptor", objects)? {
-            let flags = descriptor
-                .get("Flags")
-                .and_then(|obj| obj.try_number::<u32>(objects).ok())
-                .map(FontFlags::from_bits_truncate)
-                .unwrap_or_default();
+        let flags = FontFlags::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)?;
 
+        if let Some(descriptor) = dictionary.optional_dictionary("FontDescriptor", objects)? {
             if let Some(stream) = descriptor.optional_stream("FontFile2", objects)? {
                 return Ok(TrueTypeFontProgram {
                     font_file: FontData::shared(stream.shared_data()),
diff --git a/crates/pdf-font/src/type0_font.rs b/crates/pdf-font/src/type0_font.rs
index b6e5805..a4838d5 100644
--- a/crates/pdf-font/src/type0_font.rs
+++ b/crates/pdf-font/src/type0_font.rs
@@ -253,7 +253,7 @@ fn read_type0_font_program(
     match subtype {
         CidFontSubType::Type0 => read_cid_font_type0_program(dictionary, objects),
         CidFontSubType::Type2 => Ok(Type0FontProgram {
-            font_file: TrueTypeFont::read_font_file(dictionary, objects)?.0,
+            font_file: TrueTypeFont::read_font_file(dictionary, objects)?.font_file,
             program_format: Type0FontProgramFormat::TrueType {
                 cid_to_unicode: false,
             },
diff --git a/crates/pdf-font/src/type1_font.rs b/crates/pdf-font/src/type1_font.rs
index f8b0e70..364778f 100644
--- a/crates/pdf-font/src/type1_font.rs
+++ b/crates/pdf-font/src/type1_font.rs
@@ -3,14 +3,10 @@ use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 use pdf_cmap::ToUnicodeCMap;
 use pdf_object::{
     dictionary::Dictionary, object_lookup::ObjectLookupExt, object_resolver::ObjectResolver,
-    object_variant::ObjectVariant,
 };
 
 use crate::{
-    cff_builder::build_cff_font,
-    encoding::{Encoding, FontEncoding},
-    error::FontError,
-    font_data::FontData,
+    cff_builder::build_cff_font, encoding::Encoding, error::FontError, font_data::FontData,
     simple_font_glyph_map::SimpleFontGlyphWidthsMap,
 };
 
@@ -48,21 +44,7 @@ impl Type1Font {
         // Read the `/Widths` entry.
         let widths = SimpleFontGlyphWidthsMap::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)?;
 
-        // Read optional `/Encoding` entry. This is either a name or a dictionary.
-        let encoding = if let Some(enc_obj) = dictionary.get("Encoding") {
-            let enc_obj = objects.resolve_object(enc_obj)?;
-            match enc_obj {
-                ObjectVariant::Dictionary(enc_dictionary) => {
-                    Encoding::from_dictionary(enc_dictionary, objects)?
-                }
-                _ => {
-                    let base = FontEncoding::from(enc_obj.try_str(objects)?);
-                    Encoding::from_base_encoding(base)?
-                }
-            }
-        } else {
-            Encoding::default()
-        };
+        let encoding = Encoding::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)?.unwrap_or_default();
 
         // Parse optional ToUnicode CMap stream.
         let to_unicode = dictionary
diff --git a/crates/pdf-font/src/type3_font.rs b/crates/pdf-font/src/type3_font.rs
index bf68805..82f082c 100644
--- a/crates/pdf-font/src/type3_font.rs
+++ b/crates/pdf-font/src/type3_font.rs
@@ -5,13 +5,9 @@ use pdf_content_stream::{ContentStream, ContentStreamIdAllocator};
 use pdf_graphics::{rect::Rect, transform::Transform};
 use pdf_object::{
     dictionary::Dictionary, object_lookup::ObjectLookupExt, object_resolver::ObjectResolver,
-    object_variant::ObjectVariant,
 };
 
-use crate::{
-    encoding::{Encoding, FontEncoding},
-    error::FontError,
-};
+use crate::{encoding::Encoding, error::FontError};
 
 /// Represents a Type 3 font in a PDF document.
 ///
@@ -52,16 +48,7 @@ impl Type3Font {
             bottom,
         };
 
-        // Read optional `/Encoding` entry. This is either a name or a dictionary.
-        let encoding = dictionary
-            .get("Encoding")
-            .map(|enc_obj| match objects.resolve_object(enc_obj)? {
-                ObjectVariant::Dictionary(enc_dictionary) => {
-                    Encoding::from_dictionary(enc_dictionary, objects)
-                }
-                other => Encoding::from_base_encoding(FontEncoding::from(other.try_str(objects)?)),
-            })
-            .transpose()?;
+        let encoding = Encoding::from_dictionary(dictionary, objects)?;
 
         let char_proc_dictionary = dictionary.required_dictionary("CharProcs", objects)?;