diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index c6db760a8..67d52bdb3 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -91,18 +91,12 @@ agent-device swipe 540 1500 540 500 120 --count 8 --pause-ms 30 --pattern ping-p
 - `settings wifi|airplane|location on|off`
 - `appstate`, `apps`, `devices`, `session list`
 
-## Backends (iOS snapshots)
-
-| Backend | Speed | Accuracy | Requirements |
-| --- | --- | --- | --- |
-| `xctest` | Fast | High | No Accessibility permission required |
-| `ax` | Fast | Medium | Accessibility permission for the terminal app, not recommended |
+## iOS Snapshots
 
 Notes:
-- Default backend is `xctest`.
+- iOS snapshots use XCTest on simulators and physical devices.
 - Scope snapshots with `-s "<label>"` or `-s @ref`.
 - If XCTest returns 0 nodes (e.g., foreground app changed), agent-device fails explicitly.
-- `ax` backend is simulator-only.
 
 Flags:
 - `--version, -V` print version and exit
@@ -120,7 +114,6 @@ Flags:
 - `--pattern one-way|ping-pong` repeat pattern for `swipe`
 - `--verbose` for daemon and runner logs
 - `--json` for structured output
-- `--backend ax|xctest` (snapshot only; defaults to `xctest` on iOS)
 
 Pinch:
 - `pinch` is supported on iOS simulators.
diff --git a/ios-runner/AXSnapshot/Package.swift b/ios-runner/AXSnapshot/Package.swift
deleted file mode 100644
index 751d614c2..000000000
--- a/ios-runner/AXSnapshot/Package.swift
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
-// swift-tools-version: 5.9
-import PackageDescription
-
-let package = Package(
-    name: "axsnapshot",
-    platforms: [
-        .macOS(.v13)
-    ],
-    products: [
-        .executable(name: "axsnapshot", targets: ["AXSnapshot"])
-    ],
-    targets: [
-        .executableTarget(
-            name: "AXSnapshot",
-            path: "Sources/AXSnapshot"
-        )
-    ]
-)
diff --git a/ios-runner/AXSnapshot/Sources/AXSnapshot/main.swift b/ios-runner/AXSnapshot/Sources/AXSnapshot/main.swift
deleted file mode 100644
index 5de32b6a4..000000000
--- a/ios-runner/AXSnapshot/Sources/AXSnapshot/main.swift
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,444 +0,0 @@
-import Foundation
-import ApplicationServices
-import Cocoa
-
-struct AXNode: Codable {
-    struct Frame: Codable {
-        let x: Double
-        let y: Double
-        let width: Double
-        let height: Double
-    }
-
-    let role: String?
-    let subrole: String?
-    let label: String?
-    let value: String?
-    let identifier: String?
-    let frame: Frame?
-    let children: [AXNode]
-}
-
-struct AXSnapshotError: Error, CustomStringConvertible {
-    let message: String
-    var description: String { message }
-}
-
-let simulatorBundleId = "com.apple.iphonesimulator"
-let defaultMaxDepth = 40
-
-func hasAccessibilityPermission() -> Bool {
-    AXIsProcessTrusted()
-}
-
-func findSimulatorApp() -> NSRunningApplication? {
-    NSWorkspace.shared.runningApplications.first { $0.bundleIdentifier == simulatorBundleId }
-}
-
-func axElement(for app: NSRunningApplication) -> AXUIElement {
-    AXUIElementCreateApplication(app.processIdentifier)
-}
-
-func getAttribute<T>(_ element: AXUIElement, _ attribute: CFString) -> T? {
-    var value: AnyObject?
-    let result = AXUIElementCopyAttributeValue(element, attribute, &value)
-    guard result == .success else { return nil }
-    return value as? T
-}
-
-func getChildren(_ element: AXUIElement) -> [AXUIElement] {
-    if let children: [AXUIElement] = getAttribute(element, kAXChildrenAttribute as CFString),
-       !children.isEmpty {
-        return children
-    }
-    if let children: [AXUIElement] = getAttribute(element, kAXVisibleChildrenAttribute as CFString),
-       !children.isEmpty {
-        return children
-    }
-    if let children: [AXUIElement] = getAttribute(element, kAXContentsAttribute as CFString),
-       !children.isEmpty {
-        return children
-    }
-    return []
-}
-
-func getLabel(_ element: AXUIElement) -> String? {
-    if let label: String = getAttribute(element, "AXLabel" as CFString) {
-        return label
-    }
-    if let desc: String = getAttribute(element, kAXDescriptionAttribute as CFString) {
-        return desc
-    }
-    return nil
-}
-
-func getDescription(_ element: AXUIElement) -> String? {
-    getAttribute(element, kAXDescriptionAttribute as CFString)
-}
-
-func getValue(_ element: AXUIElement) -> String? {
-    if let value: String = getAttribute(element, kAXValueAttribute as CFString) {
-        return value
-    }
-    if let number: NSNumber = getAttribute(element, kAXValueAttribute as CFString) {
-        return number.stringValue
-    }
-    return nil
-}
-
-func getIdentifier(_ element: AXUIElement) -> String? {
-    getAttribute(element, kAXIdentifierAttribute as CFString)
-}
-
-func getFrame(_ element: AXUIElement) -> AXNode.Frame? {
-    var positionRef: CFTypeRef?
-    var sizeRef: CFTypeRef?
-    AXUIElementCopyAttributeValue(element, kAXPositionAttribute as CFString, &positionRef)
-    AXUIElementCopyAttributeValue(element, kAXSizeAttribute as CFString, &sizeRef)
-    guard let posValue = positionRef, let sizeValue = sizeRef else {
-        return nil
-    }
-    if CFGetTypeID(posValue) != AXValueGetTypeID() || CFGetTypeID(sizeValue) != AXValueGetTypeID() {
-        return nil
-    }
-    let posAx = posValue as! AXValue
-    let sizeAx = sizeValue as! AXValue
-    var point = CGPoint.zero
-    var size = CGSize.zero
-    AXValueGetValue(posAx, .cgPoint, &point)
-    AXValueGetValue(sizeAx, .cgSize, &size)
-    return AXNode.Frame(
-        x: Double(point.x),
-        y: Double(point.y),
-        width: Double(size.width),
-        height: Double(size.height)
-    )
-}
-
-func buildTree(_ element: AXUIElement, depth: Int = 0, maxDepth: Int = defaultMaxDepth) -> AXNode {
-    let children = depth < maxDepth
-        ? getChildren(element).map { buildTree($0, depth: depth + 1, maxDepth: maxDepth) }
-        : []
-    return AXNode(
-        role: getAttribute(element, kAXRoleAttribute as CFString),
-        subrole: getAttribute(element, kAXSubroleAttribute as CFString),
-        label: getLabel(element),
-        value: getValue(element),
-        identifier: getIdentifier(element),
-        frame: getFrame(element),
-        children: children
-    )
-}
-
-func findIOSAppSnapshot(in simulator: NSRunningApplication) -> (AXUIElement, AXNode.Frame?, AXUIElement, [AXUIElement], [AXUIElement])? {
-    let appElement = axElement(for: simulator)
-    let windows = getChildren(appElement).filter {
-        (getAttribute($0, kAXRoleAttribute as CFString) as String?) == (kAXWindowRole as String)
-    }
-    if windows.isEmpty { return nil }
-
-    if let focused: AXUIElement = getAttribute(appElement, kAXFocusedWindowAttribute as CFString),
-       let root = chooseRoot(in: focused) {
-        let extras = dedupeElements(findToolbarExtras(in: focused, root: root) + findTabBarExtras(in: focused, root: root))
-        let modalRoots = findAdditionalWindowRoots(windows: windows, excluding: focused, windowFrame: getFrame(focused))
-        return (root, getFrame(focused), focused, extras, modalRoots)
-    }
-
-    let sorted = windows.sorted { lhs, rhs in
-        let l = getFrame(lhs)
-        let r = getFrame(rhs)
-        let la = (l?.width ?? 0) * (l?.height ?? 0)
-        let ra = (r?.width ?? 0) * (r?.height ?? 0)
-        return la > ra
-    }
-    for window in sorted {
-        if let root = chooseRoot(in: window) {
-            let extras = dedupeElements(findToolbarExtras(in: window, root: root) + findTabBarExtras(in: window, root: root))
-            let modalRoots = findAdditionalWindowRoots(windows: windows, excluding: window, windowFrame: getFrame(window))
-            return (root, getFrame(window), window, extras, modalRoots)
-        }
-    }
-    return nil
-}
-
-private func findAdditionalWindowRoots(
-    windows: [AXUIElement],
-    excluding mainWindow: AXUIElement,
-    windowFrame: AXNode.Frame?
-) -> [AXUIElement] {
-    var roots: [AXUIElement] = []
-    for window in windows {
-        if CFEqual(window, mainWindow) { continue }
-        let frame = getFrame(window)
-        if let windowFrame = windowFrame, !frameIntersects(frame, windowFrame) {
-            continue
-        }
-        if let root = chooseRoot(in: window) {
-            roots.append(root)
-        }
-    }
-    return dedupeElements(roots)
-}
-
-private func dedupeElements(_ elements: [AXUIElement]) -> [AXUIElement] {
-    var seen: Set<AXWrapper> = []
-    var result: [AXUIElement] = []
-    for element in elements {
-        let wrapper = AXWrapper(element)
-        if seen.contains(wrapper) { continue }
-        seen.insert(wrapper)
-        result.append(element)
-    }
-    return result
-}
-
-func chooseRoot(in window: AXUIElement) -> AXUIElement? {
-    let windowFrame = getFrame(window)
-    let candidates = findGroupCandidates(in: window, windowFrame: windowFrame)
-    if let best = candidates.first?.element { return best }
-    return findLargestChildCandidate(in: window, windowFrame: windowFrame)
-}
-
-private func findLargestChildCandidate(in window: AXUIElement, windowFrame: AXNode.Frame?) -> AXUIElement? {
-    var best: (element: AXUIElement, area: Double)? = nil
-    for child in getChildren(window) {
-        let children = getChildren(child)
-        if children.isEmpty { continue }
-        let area = frameArea(getFrame(child), windowFrame: windowFrame)
-        if area <= 0 { continue }
-        if best == nil || area > best!.area {
-            best = (child, area)
-        }
-    }
-    return best?.element
-}
-
-private func frameIntersects(_ frame: AXNode.Frame?, _ target: AXNode.Frame?) -> Bool {
-    guard let frame = frame, let target = target else { return false }
-    let fx1 = frame.x
-    let fy1 = frame.y
-    let fx2 = frame.x + frame.width
-    let fy2 = frame.y + frame.height
-    let tx1 = target.x
-    let ty1 = target.y
-    let tx2 = target.x + target.width
-    let ty2 = target.y + target.height
-    return fx1 < tx2 && fx2 > tx1 && fy1 < ty2 && fy2 > ty1
-}
-
-private func isToolbarLike(_ element: AXUIElement) -> Bool {
-    let role = (getAttribute(element, kAXRoleAttribute as CFString) as String?) ?? ""
-    let subrole = (getAttribute(element, kAXSubroleAttribute as CFString) as String?) ?? ""
-    if role == (kAXToolbarRole as String) ||
-        role == (kAXTabGroupRole as String) ||
-        role == "AXTabBar" {
-        return true
-    }
-    if subrole == "AXTabBar" {
-        return true
-    }
-    return false
-}
-
-private func isTabBarLike(_ element: AXUIElement) -> Bool {
-    let role = (getAttribute(element, kAXRoleAttribute as CFString) as String?) ?? ""
-    let subrole = (getAttribute(element, kAXSubroleAttribute as CFString) as String?) ?? ""
-    if role == (kAXTabGroupRole as String) || role == "AXTabBar" { return true }
-    if subrole == "AXTabBar" { return true }
-    let desc = (getDescription(element) ?? "").lowercased()
-    if desc.contains("tab bar") { return true }
-    let label = (getLabel(element) ?? "").lowercased()
-    if label.contains("tab bar") { return true }
-    return false
-}
-
-private func findToolbarExtras(in window: AXUIElement, root: AXUIElement) -> [AXUIElement] {
-    let rootFrame = getFrame(root)
-    let rootIds = collectDescendantWrappers(from: root)
-    var extras: [AXUIElement] = []
-    var stack = getChildren(window)
-    while !stack.isEmpty {
-        let current = stack.removeLast()
-        if isToolbarLike(current) && !rootIds.contains(AXWrapper(current)) {
-            let frame = getFrame(current)
-            if frameIntersects(frame, rootFrame) {
-                extras.append(current)
-            }
-        }
-        stack.append(contentsOf: getChildren(current))
-    }
-    return extras
-}
-
-private func findTabBarExtras(in window: AXUIElement, root: AXUIElement) -> [AXUIElement] {
-    let rootFrame = getFrame(root)
-    let rootIds = collectDescendantWrappers(from: root)
-    var extras: [AXUIElement] = []
-    var stack = getChildren(window)
-    while !stack.isEmpty {
-        let current = stack.removeLast()
-        if isTabBarLike(current) && !rootIds.contains(AXWrapper(current)) {
-            let frame = getFrame(current)
-            if frameIntersects(frame, rootFrame) {
-                extras.append(current)
-            }
-        }
-        stack.append(contentsOf: getChildren(current))
-    }
-    return extras
-}
-
-private struct GroupCandidate {
-    let element: AXUIElement
-    let area: Double
-    let childCount: Int
-}
-
-private func findGroupCandidates(in root: AXUIElement, windowFrame: AXNode.Frame?) -> [GroupCandidate] {
-    var candidates: [GroupCandidate] = []
-    var visited: Set<AXWrapper> = []
-    func walk(_ element: AXUIElement) {
-        let wrapper = AXWrapper(element)
-        if visited.contains(wrapper) { return }
-        visited.insert(wrapper)
-        let children = getChildren(element)
-        let role = (getAttribute(element, kAXRoleAttribute as CFString) as String?) ?? ""
-        let isContainer = role == (kAXGroupRole as String) ||
-            role == (kAXScrollAreaRole as String) ||
-            role == (kAXUnknownRole as String)
-        if isContainer {
-            let hasNonToolbarChild = children.contains {
-                ((getAttribute($0, kAXRoleAttribute as CFString) as String?) ?? "") != (kAXToolbarRole as String)
-            }
-            if hasNonToolbarChild {
-                let frame = getFrame(element)
-                let area = frameArea(frame, windowFrame: windowFrame)
-                if area > 0 {
-                    let childCount = children.count
-                    candidates.append(
-                        GroupCandidate(
-                            element: element,
-                            area: area,
-                            childCount: childCount
-                        )
-                    )
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        for child in children {
-            walk(child)
-        }
-    }
-    walk(root)
-    candidates.sort { lhs, rhs in
-        if lhs.area == rhs.area { return lhs.childCount > rhs.childCount }
-        return lhs.area > rhs.area
-    }
-    return candidates
-}
-
-private func frameArea(_ frame: AXNode.Frame?, windowFrame: AXNode.Frame?) -> Double {
-    guard let frame = frame else { return 0 }
-    if let windowFrame = windowFrame {
-        let windowArea = max(1.0, windowFrame.width * windowFrame.height)
-        let area = frame.width * frame.height
-        if area > windowArea { return 0 }
-        return area
-    }
-    return frame.width * frame.height
-}
-
-private final class AXWrapper: Hashable {
-    let element: AXUIElement
-    init(_ element: AXUIElement) { self.element = element }
-    func hash(into hasher: inout Hasher) { hasher.combine(CFHash(element)) }
-    static func == (lhs: AXWrapper, rhs: AXWrapper) -> Bool {
-        return CFEqual(lhs.element, rhs.element)
-    }
-}
-
-private func collectDescendantWrappers(from root: AXUIElement) -> Set<AXWrapper> {
-    var seen: Set<AXWrapper> = []
-    var stack = [root]
-    while !stack.isEmpty {
-        let current = stack.removeLast()
-        let wrapper = AXWrapper(current)
-        if seen.contains(wrapper) { continue }
-        seen.insert(wrapper)
-        stack.append(contentsOf: getChildren(current))
-    }
-    return seen
-}
-
-
-private struct SnapshotPayload: Codable {
-    let windowFrame: AXNode.Frame?
-    let root: AXNode
-}
-
-func main() throws {
-    guard hasAccessibilityPermission() else {
-        throw AXSnapshotError(message: "Accessibility permission not granted. Enable it in System Settings > Privacy & Security > Accessibility.")
-    }
-    guard let simulator = findSimulatorApp() else {
-        throw AXSnapshotError(message: "iOS Simulator is not running.")
-    }
-    let maxAttempts = 5
-    var snapshot: (AXUIElement, AXNode.Frame?, AXUIElement, [AXUIElement], [AXUIElement])? = nil
-    for attempt in 0..<maxAttempts {
-        if let candidate = findIOSAppSnapshot(in: simulator) {
-            let (root, _, _, _, modalRoots) = candidate
-            if !getChildren(root).isEmpty || !modalRoots.isEmpty {
-                snapshot = candidate
-                break
-            }
-        }
-        if attempt < maxAttempts - 1 {
-            usleep(300_000)
-        }
-    }
-    guard let (root, windowFrame, _, extras, modalRoots) = snapshot else {
-        throw AXSnapshotError(message: "Could not find iOS app content in Simulator.")
-    }
-    var tree = buildTree(root)
-    if !extras.isEmpty {
-        let extraNodes = extras.map { buildTree($0) }
-        tree = AXNode(
-            role: tree.role,
-            subrole: tree.subrole,
-            label: tree.label,
-            value: tree.value,
-            identifier: tree.identifier,
-            frame: tree.frame,
-            children: tree.children + extraNodes
-        )
-    }
-    if !modalRoots.isEmpty {
-        let modalNodes = modalRoots.map { buildTree($0) }
-        tree = AXNode(
-            role: tree.role,
-            subrole: tree.subrole,
-            label: tree.label,
-            value: tree.value,
-            identifier: tree.identifier,
-            frame: tree.frame,
-            children: tree.children + modalNodes
-        )
-    }
-    let payload = SnapshotPayload(windowFrame: windowFrame, root: tree)
-    let encoder = JSONEncoder()
-    encoder.outputFormatting = [.sortedKeys]
-    let data = try encoder.encode(payload)
-    if let json = String(data: data, encoding: .utf8) {
-        print(json)
-    } else {
-        throw AXSnapshotError(message: "Failed to encode AX snapshot JSON.")
-    }
-}
-
-do {
-    try main()
-} catch {
-    fputs("axsnapshot error: \(error)\n", stderr)
-    exit(1)
-}
diff --git a/package.json b/package.json
index a1df175ac..c29217be3 100644
--- a/package.json
+++ b/package.json
@@ -15,15 +15,13 @@
     "lint": "node --eval \"console.log('no lint')\"",
     "build": "rslib build",
     "build:node": "pnpm build && rm -f ~/.agent-device/daemon.json",
-    "build:swift": "swift build -c release --package-path ios-runner/AXSnapshot",
-    "build:axsnapshot": "pnpm build:swift && mkdir -p dist/bin && cp -f ios-runner/AXSnapshot/.build/release/axsnapshot dist/bin/axsnapshot && chmod +x dist/bin/axsnapshot",
     "build:xcuitest": "AGENT_DEVICE_IOS_CLEAN_DERIVED=1 xcodebuild build-for-testing -project ios-runner/AgentDeviceRunner/AgentDeviceRunner.xcodeproj -scheme AgentDeviceRunner -destination \"generic/platform=iOS Simulator\" -derivedDataPath ~/.agent-device/ios-runner/derived",
-    "build:clis": "pnpm build:node && pnpm build:axsnapshot",
-    "build:all": "pnpm build:node && pnpm build:axsnapshot && pnpm build:xcuitest",
+    "build:clis": "pnpm build:node",
+    "build:all": "pnpm build:node && pnpm build:xcuitest",
     "ad": "node bin/agent-device.mjs",
     "format": "prettier --write .",
-    "prepublishOnly": "pnpm build:node && pnpm build:axsnapshot",
-    "prepack": "pnpm build:node && pnpm build:axsnapshot",
+    "prepublishOnly": "pnpm build:node",
+    "prepack": "pnpm build:node",
     "typecheck": "tsc -p tsconfig.json",
     "test": "node --test",
     "test:unit": "node --test src/__tests__/*.test.ts src/core/__tests__/*.test.ts src/daemon/__tests__/*.test.ts src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/*.test.ts src/platforms/**/__tests__/*.test.ts src/utils/**/__tests__/*.test.ts",
@@ -39,7 +37,6 @@
     "!ios-runner/**/xcuserdata",
     "!ios-runner/**/*.xcuserstate",
     "skills",
-    "src",
     "README.md",
     "LICENSE"
   ],
diff --git a/skills/agent-device/SKILL.md b/skills/agent-device/SKILL.md
index 755fab228..ff54d6df6 100644
--- a/skills/agent-device/SKILL.md
+++ b/skills/agent-device/SKILL.md
@@ -64,11 +64,9 @@ agent-device snapshot -c               # Compact output
 agent-device snapshot -d 3             # Limit depth
 agent-device snapshot -s "Camera"      # Scope to label/identifier
 agent-device snapshot --raw            # Raw node output
-agent-device snapshot --backend xctest # default: XCTest snapshot (fast, complete, no permissions)
-agent-device snapshot --backend ax     # macOS Accessibility tree (manual diagnostics only; no automatic fallback)
 ```
 
-XCTest is the default: fast and complete and does not require permissions. Use AX only for manual diagnostics, and prefer XCTest for normal automation flows. agent-device does not automatically fall back to AX.
+XCTest is the iOS snapshot engine: fast, complete, and no Accessibility permission required.
 
 ### Find (semantic)
 
@@ -157,7 +155,7 @@ agent-device replay -u ./session.ad   # Update selector drift and rewrite .ad sc
 `--save-script` path is a file path; parent directories are created automatically.
 For ambiguous bare values, use `--save-script=workflow.ad` or `./workflow.ad`.
 
-### Trace logs (AX/XCTest)
+### Trace logs (XCTest)
 
 ```bash
 agent-device trace start               # Start trace capture
@@ -187,12 +185,11 @@ agent-device apps --platform android --user-installed
 - Snapshot refs are the core mechanism for interactive agent flows.
 - Use selectors for deterministic replay artifacts and assertions (e.g. in e2e test workflows).
 - Prefer `snapshot -i` to reduce output size.
-- On iOS, `xctest` is the default and does not require Accessibility permission.
+- On iOS, snapshots use XCTest and do not require Accessibility permission.
 - If XCTest returns 0 nodes (foreground app changed), treat it as an explicit failure and retry the flow/app state.
 - `open <app|url> [url]` can be used within an existing session to switch apps or open deep links.
 - `open <app>` updates session app bundle context; `open <app> <url>` opens a deep link on iOS.
 - Use `open <app> --relaunch` during React Native/Fast Refresh debugging when you need a fresh app process without ending the session.
-- If AX returns the Simulator window or empty tree, restart Simulator or use `--backend xctest`.
 - Use `--session <name>` for parallel sessions; avoid device contention.
 - Use `--activity <component>` on Android to launch a specific activity (e.g. TV apps with LEANBACK); do not combine with URL opens.
 - On iOS devices, `http(s)://` URLs fall back to Safari automatically; custom scheme URLs require an active app in the session.
diff --git a/skills/agent-device/references/permissions.md b/skills/agent-device/references/permissions.md
index 4238cd905..e2f41c6da 100644
--- a/skills/agent-device/references/permissions.md
+++ b/skills/agent-device/references/permissions.md
@@ -1,19 +1,8 @@
 # Permissions and Setup
 
-## iOS AX snapshot
+## iOS snapshots
 
-AX snapshot is available for manual diagnostics when needed; it is not used as an automatic fallback. It uses macOS Accessibility APIs and requires permission:
-
-System Settings > Privacy & Security > Accessibility
-
-If permission is missing, use XCTest backend:
-
-```bash
-agent-device snapshot --backend xctest --platform ios
-```
-
-Hybrid/AX is fast; XCTest is equally fast but does not require permissions.
-AX backend is simulator-only.
+iOS snapshots use XCTest and do not require macOS Accessibility permissions.
 
 ## iOS physical device runner
 
@@ -35,5 +24,4 @@ If daemon startup fails with stale metadata hints, clean stale files and retry:
 
 ## Simulator troubleshooting
 
-- If AX shows the Simulator chrome instead of app, restart Simulator.
-- If AX returns empty, restart Simulator and re-open app.
+- If snapshots return 0 nodes, restart Simulator and re-open the app.
diff --git a/skills/agent-device/references/snapshot-refs.md b/skills/agent-device/references/snapshot-refs.md
index 360a53a3a..7dd7e4e19 100644
--- a/skills/agent-device/references/snapshot-refs.md
+++ b/skills/agent-device/references/snapshot-refs.md
@@ -53,10 +53,7 @@ agent-device snapshot -i -s @e3
 ## Troubleshooting
 
 - Ref not found: re-snapshot.
-- AX returns Simulator window: restart Simulator and re-run.
-- AX empty: verify Accessibility permission or use `--backend xctest` (XCTest is more complete).
-- AX backend is simulator-only; use `--backend xctest` on iOS devices.
-- agent-device does not automatically fall back to AX when XCTest fails.
+- If XCTest returns 0 nodes, foreground app state may have changed. Re-open the app or retry after state is stable.
 
 ## Replay note
 
diff --git a/src/core/dispatch.ts b/src/core/dispatch.ts
index 3687b0a6e..0703a6b93 100644
--- a/src/core/dispatch.ts
+++ b/src/core/dispatch.ts
@@ -14,7 +14,6 @@ import {
 import { listIosDevices } from '../platforms/ios/devices.ts';
 import { getInteractor, type RunnerContext } from '../utils/interactors.ts';
 import { runIosRunnerCommand } from '../platforms/ios/runner-client.ts';
-import { snapshotAx } from '../platforms/ios/ax-snapshot.ts';
 import { setIosSetting } from '../platforms/ios/index.ts';
 import { isDeepLinkTarget } from './open-target.ts';
 import type { RawSnapshotNode } from '../utils/snapshot.ts';
@@ -71,7 +70,6 @@ export async function dispatchCommand(
     snapshotDepth?: number;
     snapshotScope?: string;
     snapshotRaw?: boolean;
-    snapshotBackend?: 'ax' | 'xctest';
     count?: number;
     intervalMs?: number;
     holdMs?: number;
@@ -303,19 +301,7 @@ export async function dispatchCommand(
       return { setting, state };
     }
     case 'snapshot': {
-      const backend = context?.snapshotBackend ?? 'xctest';
       if (device.platform === 'ios') {
-        // Keep this guard for non-daemon callers that invoke dispatch directly.
-        if (backend === 'ax' && device.kind !== 'simulator') {
-          throw new AppError(
-            'UNSUPPORTED_OPERATION',
-            'AX snapshot backend is not supported on iOS physical devices; use --backend xctest',
-          );
-        }
-        if (backend === 'ax') {
-          const ax = await snapshotAx(device, { traceLogPath: context?.traceLogPath });
-          return { nodes: ax.nodes ?? [], truncated: false, backend: 'ax' };
-        }
         const result = (await runIosRunnerCommand(
           device,
           {
@@ -333,7 +319,7 @@ export async function dispatchCommand(
         if (nodes.length === 0 && device.kind === 'simulator') {
           throw new AppError(
             'COMMAND_FAILED',
-            'XCTest snapshot returned 0 nodes on iOS simulator. You can try --backend ax for diagnostics, but AX snapshots are not recommended.',
+            'XCTest snapshot returned 0 nodes on iOS simulator.',
           );
         }
         return { nodes, truncated: result.truncated ?? false, backend: 'xctest' };
diff --git a/src/daemon/context.ts b/src/daemon/context.ts
index 78a876769..169d980f3 100644
--- a/src/daemon/context.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/context.ts
@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@ export type DaemonCommandContext = {
   snapshotCompact?: boolean;
   snapshotDepth?: number;
   snapshotScope?: string;
-  snapshotBackend?: 'ax' | 'xctest';
   snapshotRaw?: boolean;
   count?: number;
   intervalMs?: number;
@@ -37,7 +36,6 @@ export function contextFromFlags(
     snapshotDepth: flags?.snapshotDepth,
     snapshotScope: flags?.snapshotScope,
     snapshotRaw: flags?.snapshotRaw,
-    snapshotBackend: flags?.snapshotBackend,
     count: flags?.count,
     intervalMs: flags?.intervalMs,
     holdMs: flags?.holdMs,
diff --git a/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/interaction.test.ts b/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/interaction.test.ts
index a3a440a72..233baeed5 100644
--- a/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/interaction.test.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/interaction.test.ts
@@ -7,9 +7,8 @@ test('unsupportedRefSnapshotFlags returns unsupported snapshot flags for @ref fl
     snapshotDepth: 2,
     snapshotScope: 'Login',
     snapshotRaw: true,
-    snapshotBackend: 'ax',
   });
-  assert.deepEqual(unsupported, ['--depth', '--scope', '--raw', '--backend']);
+  assert.deepEqual(unsupported, ['--depth', '--scope', '--raw']);
 });
 
 test('unsupportedRefSnapshotFlags returns empty when no ref-unsupported flags are present', () => {
diff --git a/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/replay-heal.test.ts b/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/replay-heal.test.ts
index 2b8512f33..7c4c14594 100644
--- a/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/replay-heal.test.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/replay-heal.test.ts
@@ -175,6 +175,78 @@ test('replay --update heals selector and rewrites replay file', async () => {
   assert.ok(!rewrittenSelector.includes('old_continue'));
 });
 
+test('replay tolerates legacy snapshot --backend and strips it on rewrite', async () => {
+  const tempRoot = fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'agent-device-replay-legacy-backend-'));
+  const sessionsDir = path.join(tempRoot, 'sessions');
+  const replayPath = path.join(tempRoot, 'replay.ad');
+  const sessionStore = new SessionStore(sessionsDir);
+  const sessionName = 'legacy-backend-session';
+  sessionStore.set(sessionName, makeSession(sessionName));
+  fs.writeFileSync(
+    replayPath,
+    [
+      'snapshot -i --backend xctest',
+      'click "id=\\"old_continue\\" || label=\\"Continue\\""',
+      '',
+    ].join('\n'),
+  );
+
+  const invoke = async (request: DaemonRequest): Promise<DaemonResponse> => {
+    if (request.command === 'snapshot') {
+      return { ok: true, data: { nodes: [] } };
+    }
+    if (request.command === 'click') {
+      const selector = request.positionals?.[0] ?? '';
+      if (selector.includes('old_continue')) {
+        return { ok: false, error: { code: 'COMMAND_FAILED', message: 'selector no longer exists' } };
+      }
+      if (selector.includes('auth_continue')) {
+        return { ok: true, data: { clicked: true } };
+      }
+    }
+    return { ok: false, error: { code: 'INVALID_ARGS', message: `unexpected command ${request.command}` } };
+  };
+
+  const dispatch = async (): Promise<Record<string, unknown> | void> => {
+    return {
+      nodes: [
+        {
+          index: 0,
+          type: 'XCUIElementTypeButton',
+          label: 'Continue',
+          identifier: 'auth_continue',
+          rect: { x: 10, y: 10, width: 100, height: 44 },
+          enabled: true,
+          hittable: true,
+        },
+      ],
+      truncated: false,
+      backend: 'xctest',
+    };
+  };
+
+  const response = await handleSessionCommands({
+    req: {
+      token: 't',
+      session: sessionName,
+      command: 'replay',
+      positionals: [replayPath],
+      flags: { replayUpdate: true },
+    },
+    sessionName,
+    logPath: path.join(tempRoot, 'daemon.log'),
+    sessionStore,
+    invoke,
+    dispatch,
+  });
+
+  assert.ok(response);
+  assert.equal(response.ok, true, JSON.stringify(response));
+  const rewritten = fs.readFileSync(replayPath, 'utf8');
+  assert.match(rewritten, /^snapshot -i$/m);
+  assert.doesNotMatch(rewritten, /--backend/);
+});
+
 test('replay without --update does not heal or rewrite', async () => {
   const tempRoot = fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'agent-device-replay-noheal-'));
   const sessionsDir = path.join(tempRoot, 'sessions');
diff --git a/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/snapshot-handler.test.ts b/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/snapshot-handler.test.ts
index a689c6b8c..7a4e42d73 100644
--- a/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/snapshot-handler.test.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/handlers/__tests__/snapshot-handler.test.ts
@@ -21,16 +21,16 @@ function makeSession(name: string, device: SessionState['device']): SessionState
   };
 }
 
-test('snapshot rejects AX backend on iOS physical devices', async () => {
+test('snapshot rejects @ref scope without existing session snapshot', async () => {
   const sessionStore = makeSessionStore();
-  const sessionName = 'ios-device';
+  const sessionName = 'ios-sim';
   sessionStore.set(
     sessionName,
     makeSession(sessionName, {
       platform: 'ios',
-      id: 'ios-device-1',
-      name: 'My iPhone',
-      kind: 'device',
+      id: 'sim-1',
+      name: 'My iPhone Simulator',
+      kind: 'simulator',
       booted: true,
     }),
   );
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ test('snapshot rejects AX backend on iOS physical devices', async () => {
       session: sessionName,
       command: 'snapshot',
       positionals: [],
-      flags: { snapshotBackend: 'ax' },
+      flags: { snapshotScope: '@e1' },
     },
     sessionName,
     logPath: '/tmp/daemon.log',
@@ -51,8 +51,8 @@ test('snapshot rejects AX backend on iOS physical devices', async () => {
   assert.ok(response);
   assert.equal(response?.ok, false);
   if (response && !response.ok) {
-    assert.equal(response.error.code, 'UNSUPPORTED_OPERATION');
-    assert.match(response.error.message, /AX snapshot backend is not supported/i);
+    assert.equal(response.error.code, 'INVALID_ARGS');
+    assert.match(response.error.message, /requires an existing snapshot/i);
   }
 });
 
diff --git a/src/daemon/handlers/find.ts b/src/daemon/handlers/find.ts
index b2f6461a8..352e6fc81 100644
--- a/src/daemon/handlers/find.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/handlers/find.ts
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ export async function handleFindCommands(params: {
     })) as {
       nodes?: RawSnapshotNode[];
       truncated?: boolean;
-      backend?: 'ax' | 'xctest' | 'android';
+      backend?: 'xctest' | 'android';
     };
     const rawNodes = data?.nodes ?? [];
     const nodes = attachRefs(req.flags?.snapshotRaw ? rawNodes : pruneGroupNodes(rawNodes));
diff --git a/src/daemon/handlers/interaction.ts b/src/daemon/handlers/interaction.ts
index 998fa892d..4c0af6162 100644
--- a/src/daemon/handlers/interaction.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/handlers/interaction.ts
@@ -504,7 +504,7 @@ async function captureSnapshotForSession(
   })) as {
     nodes?: RawSnapshotNode[];
     truncated?: boolean;
-    backend?: 'ax' | 'xctest' | 'android';
+    backend?: 'xctest' | 'android';
   };
   const rawNodes = data?.nodes ?? [];
   const nodes = attachRefs(flags?.snapshotRaw ? rawNodes : pruneGroupNodes(rawNodes));
@@ -522,7 +522,6 @@ const REF_UNSUPPORTED_FLAG_MAP: ReadonlyArray<[keyof CommandFlags, string]> = [
   ['snapshotDepth', '--depth'],
   ['snapshotScope', '--scope'],
   ['snapshotRaw', '--raw'],
-  ['snapshotBackend', '--backend'],
 ];
 
 function refSnapshotFlagGuardResponse(
diff --git a/src/daemon/handlers/session.ts b/src/daemon/handlers/session.ts
index 276105520..e6f61f2d8 100644
--- a/src/daemon/handlers/session.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/handlers/session.ts
@@ -766,7 +766,7 @@ async function captureSnapshotForReplay(
   })) as {
     nodes?: RawSnapshotNode[];
     truncated?: boolean;
-    backend?: 'ax' | 'xctest' | 'android';
+    backend?: 'xctest' | 'android';
   };
   const rawNodes = data?.nodes ?? [];
   const nodes = attachRefs(action.flags?.snapshotRaw ? rawNodes : pruneGroupNodes(rawNodes));
@@ -965,11 +965,9 @@ function parseReplayScriptLine(line: string): SessionAction | null {
         continue;
       }
       if (token === '--backend' && index + 1 < args.length) {
-        const backend = args[index + 1];
-        if (backend === 'ax' || backend === 'xctest') {
-          action.flags.snapshotBackend = backend;
-        }
+        // Backward compatibility: ignore legacy snapshot backend token.
         index += 1;
+        continue;
       }
     }
     return action;
@@ -1109,9 +1107,6 @@ function formatReplayActionLine(action: SessionAction): string {
       parts.push('-s', formatReplayArg(action.flags.snapshotScope));
     }
     if (action.flags?.snapshotRaw) parts.push('--raw');
-    if (action.flags?.snapshotBackend) {
-      parts.push('--backend', action.flags.snapshotBackend);
-    }
     return parts.join(' ');
   }
   if (action.command === 'open') {
diff --git a/src/daemon/handlers/snapshot.ts b/src/daemon/handlers/snapshot.ts
index 1646e695c..0bd2db1a9 100644
--- a/src/daemon/handlers/snapshot.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/handlers/snapshot.ts
@@ -37,15 +37,6 @@ export async function handleSnapshotCommands(params: {
         },
       };
     }
-    if (device.platform === 'ios' && device.kind === 'device' && req.flags?.snapshotBackend === 'ax') {
-      return {
-        ok: false,
-        error: {
-          code: 'UNSUPPORTED_OPERATION',
-          message: 'AX snapshot backend is not supported on iOS physical devices; use --backend xctest',
-        },
-      };
-    }
     const appBundleId = session?.appBundleId;
     let snapshotScope = req.flags?.snapshotScope;
     if (snapshotScope && snapshotScope.trim().startsWith('@')) {
@@ -89,7 +80,7 @@ export async function handleSnapshotCommands(params: {
       })) as {
         nodes?: RawSnapshotNode[];
         truncated?: boolean;
-        backend?: 'ax' | 'xctest' | 'android';
+        backend?: 'xctest' | 'android';
       };
       const rawNodes = data?.nodes ?? [];
       const nodes = attachRefs(req.flags?.snapshotRaw ? rawNodes : pruneGroupNodes(rawNodes));
@@ -163,7 +154,7 @@ export async function handleSnapshotCommands(params: {
           })) as {
             nodes?: RawSnapshotNode[];
             truncated?: boolean;
-            backend?: 'ax' | 'xctest' | 'android';
+            backend?: 'xctest' | 'android';
           };
           const rawNodes = data?.nodes ?? [];
           const nodes = attachRefs(req.flags?.snapshotRaw ? rawNodes : pruneGroupNodes(rawNodes));
diff --git a/src/daemon/session-store.ts b/src/daemon/session-store.ts
index fec6e69e1..4a73abbd1 100644
--- a/src/daemon/session-store.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/session-store.ts
@@ -176,7 +176,6 @@ function sanitizeFlags(flags: CommandFlags | undefined): SessionAction['flags']
     snapshotDepth,
     snapshotScope,
     snapshotRaw,
-    snapshotBackend,
     relaunch,
     saveScript,
     noRecord,
@@ -193,7 +192,6 @@ function sanitizeFlags(flags: CommandFlags | undefined): SessionAction['flags']
     snapshotDepth,
     snapshotScope,
     snapshotRaw,
-    snapshotBackend,
     relaunch,
     saveScript,
     noRecord,
@@ -268,9 +266,6 @@ function formatActionLine(action: SessionAction): string {
       parts.push('-s', formatArg(action.flags.snapshotScope));
     }
     if (action.flags?.snapshotRaw) parts.push('--raw');
-    if (action.flags?.snapshotBackend) {
-      parts.push(`--backend`, action.flags.snapshotBackend);
-    }
     return parts.join(' ');
   }
   if (action.command === 'open') {
diff --git a/src/daemon/snapshot-processing.ts b/src/daemon/snapshot-processing.ts
index 974967322..300aa0c11 100644
--- a/src/daemon/snapshot-processing.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/snapshot-processing.ts
@@ -79,9 +79,6 @@ export function pruneGroupNodes(nodes: RawSnapshotNode[]): RawSnapshotNode[] {
 
 export function normalizeType(type: string): string {
   let value = type.trim().replace(/XCUIElementType/gi, '').toLowerCase();
-  if (value.startsWith('ax')) {
-    value = value.replace(/^ax/, '');
-  }
   const lastSeparator = Math.max(value.lastIndexOf('.'), value.lastIndexOf('/'));
   if (lastSeparator !== -1) {
     value = value.slice(lastSeparator + 1);
diff --git a/src/daemon/types.ts b/src/daemon/types.ts
index 32f45960c..2289256ca 100644
--- a/src/daemon/types.ts
+++ b/src/daemon/types.ts
@@ -48,7 +48,6 @@ export type SessionAction = {
     snapshotDepth?: number;
     snapshotScope?: string;
     snapshotRaw?: boolean;
-    snapshotBackend?: 'ax' | 'xctest';
     saveScript?: boolean | string;
     noRecord?: boolean;
   };
diff --git a/src/platforms/ios/ax-snapshot.ts b/src/platforms/ios/ax-snapshot.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 8cb6e57fd..000000000
--- a/src/platforms/ios/ax-snapshot.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,207 +0,0 @@
-import path from 'node:path';
-import fs from 'node:fs';
-import { fileURLToPath } from 'node:url';
-import { AppError } from '../../utils/errors.ts';
-import { runCmd } from '../../utils/exec.ts';
-import { withRetry } from '../../utils/retry.ts';
-import type { DeviceInfo } from '../../utils/device.ts';
-import type { RawSnapshotNode } from '../../utils/snapshot.ts';
-
-type AXFrame = { x: number; y: number; width: number; height: number };
-type AXNode = {
-  role?: string;
-  subrole?: string;
-  label?: string;
-  value?: string;
-  identifier?: string;
-  frame?: AXFrame;
-  children?: AXNode[];
-};
-
-export async function snapshotAx(
-  device: DeviceInfo,
-  options: { traceLogPath?: string } = {},
-): Promise<{ nodes: RawSnapshotNode[] }> {
-  if (device.platform !== 'ios' || device.kind !== 'simulator') {
-    throw new AppError('UNSUPPORTED_OPERATION', 'AX snapshot is only supported on iOS simulators');
-  }
-  const binary = await ensureAxSnapshotBinary();
-  const result = await withRetry(
-    async () => {
-      const attemptResult = await runCmd(binary, [], { allowFailure: true });
-      if (options.traceLogPath) {
-        appendAxTrace(options.traceLogPath, attemptResult);
-      }
-      if (attemptResult.exitCode !== 0) {
-        const stderrText = (attemptResult.stderr ?? '').toString();
-        const hint = axHintFromStderr(stderrText);
-        const retryable = isRetryableAxError(stderrText);
-        const error = new AppError('COMMAND_FAILED', 'AX snapshot failed', {
-          stderr: `${stderrText}${hint}`,
-          stdout: attemptResult.stdout,
-          retryable,
-        });
-        throw error;
-      }
-      return attemptResult;
-    },
-    {
-      shouldRetry: (err) => isRetryableError(err),
-    },
-  );
-  let tree: AXNode;
-  let originFrame: AXFrame | undefined;
-  try {
-    const payload = JSON.parse(result.stdout) as
-      | AXNode
-      | { root?: AXNode; windowFrame?: AXFrame | null };
-    if (payload && typeof payload === 'object' && 'root' in payload) {
-      const snapshot = payload as { root?: AXNode; windowFrame?: AXFrame | null };
-      if (!snapshot.root) throw new Error('AX snapshot missing root');
-      tree = snapshot.root;
-      originFrame = snapshot.windowFrame ?? undefined;
-    } else {
-      tree = payload as AXNode;
-    }
-  } catch (err) {
-    throw new AppError('COMMAND_FAILED', 'Invalid AX snapshot JSON', { error: String(err) });
-  }
-  const rootFrame = tree.frame ?? originFrame;
-  const frameSamples: AXFrame[] = [];
-  const nodes: Array<AXNode & { depth: number }> = [];
-  const walk = (node: AXNode, depth: number) => {
-    if (node.frame) frameSamples.push(node.frame);
-    const frame = node.frame && rootFrame
-      ? {
-          x: node.frame.x - rootFrame.x,
-          y: node.frame.y - rootFrame.y,
-          width: node.frame.width,
-          height: node.frame.height,
-        }
-      : node.frame;
-    nodes.push({ ...node, frame, children: undefined, depth });
-    for (const child of node.children ?? []) {
-      walk(child, depth + 1);
-    }
-  };
-  walk(tree, 0);
-  const normalized = normalizeFrames(nodes, rootFrame, frameSamples);
-  const mapped = normalized.map((node, index) => ({
-    index,
-    type: node.subrole ?? node.role,
-    label: node.label,
-    value: node.value,
-    identifier: node.identifier,
-    rect: node.frame
-      ? {
-          x: node.frame.x,
-          y: node.frame.y,
-          width: node.frame.width,
-          height: node.frame.height,
-        }
-      : undefined,
-    depth: node.depth,
-  }));
-  return { nodes: mapped };
-}
-
-function axHintFromStderr(stderrText: string): string {
-  const lower = stderrText.toLowerCase();
-  if (lower.includes('accessibility permission')) {
-    return (
-      ' Enable Accessibility for your terminal in System Settings > Privacy & Security > Accessibility, ' +
-      'or use --backend xctest (slower snapshots via XCTest).'
-    );
-  }
-  if (lower.includes('could not find ios app content')) {
-    return ' AX snapshot sometimes caches empty content. Try restarting the Simulator app.';
-  }
-  return '';
-}
-
-function appendAxTrace(traceLogPath: string, result: { stdout?: string; stderr?: string; exitCode: number }): void {
-  const stdoutText = (result.stdout ?? '').toString();
-  const stderrText = (result.stderr ?? '').toString();
-  const header = `\n[axsnapshot] exit=${result.exitCode} stdoutBytes=${stdoutText.length} stderrBytes=${stderrText.length}\n`;
-  fs.appendFileSync(traceLogPath, header);
-  if (result.exitCode !== 0 || stderrText.length > 0) {
-    if (stderrText.length > 0) {
-      fs.appendFileSync(traceLogPath, `${stderrText}\n`);
-    }
-    if (result.exitCode !== 0 && stdoutText.length > 0) {
-      fs.appendFileSync(traceLogPath, `${stdoutText}\n`);
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-function isRetryableAxError(stderrText: string): boolean {
-  const lower = stderrText.toLowerCase();
-  if (lower.includes('could not find ios app content')) return true;
-  if (lower.includes('timeout')) return true;
-  return false;
-}
-
-function isRetryableError(err: unknown): boolean {
-  return err instanceof AppError && err.code === 'COMMAND_FAILED' && err.details?.retryable === true;
-}
-
-function normalizeFrames(
-  nodes: Array<AXNode & { depth: number }>,
-  originFrame: AXFrame | undefined,
-  frames: AXFrame[],
-): Array<AXNode & { depth: number }> {
-  if (!originFrame || frames.length === 0) return nodes;
-  let minX = Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
-  let minY = Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
-  for (const frame of frames) {
-    if (frame.x < minX) minX = frame.x;
-    if (frame.y < minY) minY = frame.y;
-  }
-  const nearZero = minX <= 5 && minY <= 5;
-  if (nearZero) {
-    return nodes.map((node) => ({
-      ...node,
-      frame: node.frame
-        ? {
-            x: node.frame.x + originFrame.x,
-            y: node.frame.y + originFrame.y,
-            width: node.frame.width,
-            height: node.frame.height,
-          }
-        : undefined,
-    }));
-  }
-  return nodes;
-}
-
-async function ensureAxSnapshotBinary(): Promise<string> {
-  const projectRoot = findProjectRoot();
-  const packageDir = path.join(projectRoot, 'ios-runner', 'AXSnapshot');
-  const envPath = process.env.AGENT_DEVICE_AX_BINARY;
-  if (envPath && fs.existsSync(envPath)) return envPath;
-  const packagedPath = path.join(projectRoot, 'dist', 'bin', 'axsnapshot');
-  if (fs.existsSync(packagedPath)) return packagedPath;
-  const binaryPath = path.join(packageDir, '.build', 'release', 'axsnapshot');
-  if (fs.existsSync(binaryPath)) return binaryPath;
-  const result = await runCmd('swift', ['build', '-c', 'release'], {
-    cwd: packageDir,
-    allowFailure: true,
-  });
-  if (result.exitCode !== 0 || !fs.existsSync(binaryPath)) {
-    throw new AppError('COMMAND_FAILED', 'Failed to build AX snapshot tool', {
-      stderr: result.stderr,
-      stdout: result.stdout,
-    });
-  }
-  return binaryPath;
-}
-
-function findProjectRoot(): string {
-  let current = path.dirname(fileURLToPath(import.meta.url));
-  for (let i = 0; i < 6; i += 1) {
-    const pkgPath = path.join(current, 'package.json');
-    if (fs.existsSync(pkgPath)) return current;
-    current = path.dirname(current);
-  }
-  return process.cwd();
-}
diff --git a/src/utils/__tests__/args.test.ts b/src/utils/__tests__/args.test.ts
index cc48e95c9..69d55cb59 100644
--- a/src/utils/__tests__/args.test.ts
+++ b/src/utils/__tests__/args.test.ts
@@ -201,11 +201,11 @@ test('all commands participate in strict command-flag validation', () => {
   );
 });
 
-test('invalid enum/range errors are deterministic', () => {
+test('invalid range errors are deterministic', () => {
   assert.throws(
-    () => parseArgs(['snapshot', '--backend', 'foo'], { strictFlags: true }),
+    () => parseArgs(['snapshot', '--backend', 'xctest'], { strictFlags: true }),
     (error) =>
-      error instanceof AppError && error.code === 'INVALID_ARGS' && error.message === 'Invalid backend: foo',
+      error instanceof AppError && error.code === 'INVALID_ARGS' && error.message === 'Unknown flag: --backend',
   );
   assert.throws(
     () => parseArgs(['snapshot', '--depth', '-1'], { strictFlags: true }),
diff --git a/src/utils/command-schema.ts b/src/utils/command-schema.ts
index 7212a0e88..c2f91aa4c 100644
--- a/src/utils/command-schema.ts
+++ b/src/utils/command-schema.ts
@@ -12,7 +12,6 @@ export type CliFlags = {
   snapshotDepth?: number;
   snapshotScope?: string;
   snapshotRaw?: boolean;
-  snapshotBackend?: 'ax' | 'xctest';
   appsFilter?: 'user-installed' | 'all';
   count?: number;
   intervalMs?: number;
@@ -60,17 +59,15 @@ const SNAPSHOT_FLAGS = [
   'snapshotDepth',
   'snapshotScope',
   'snapshotRaw',
-  'snapshotBackend',
 ] as const satisfies readonly FlagKey[];
 
 const SELECTOR_SNAPSHOT_FLAGS = [
   'snapshotDepth',
   'snapshotScope',
   'snapshotRaw',
-  'snapshotBackend',
 ] as const satisfies readonly FlagKey[];
 
-const FIND_SNAPSHOT_FLAGS = ['snapshotDepth', 'snapshotRaw', 'snapshotBackend'] as const satisfies readonly FlagKey[];
+const FIND_SNAPSHOT_FLAGS = ['snapshotDepth', 'snapshotRaw'] as const satisfies readonly FlagKey[];
 
 export const FLAG_DEFINITIONS: readonly FlagDefinition[] = [
   {
@@ -277,14 +274,6 @@ export const FLAG_DEFINITIONS: readonly FlagDefinition[] = [
     usageLabel: '--raw',
     usageDescription: 'Snapshot: raw node output',
   },
-  {
-    key: 'snapshotBackend',
-    names: ['--backend'],
-    type: 'enum',
-    enumValues: ['ax', 'xctest'],
-    usageLabel: '--backend ax|xctest',
-    usageDescription: 'Snapshot backend (iOS): ax or xctest',
-  },
   {
     key: 'out',
     names: ['--out'],
diff --git a/src/utils/finders.ts b/src/utils/finders.ts
index bc4cd2561..32e178a02 100644
--- a/src/utils/finders.ts
+++ b/src/utils/finders.ts
@@ -94,8 +94,5 @@ function normalizeRole(value: string): string {
   if (!normalized) return '';
   const lastSegment = normalized.split('.').pop() ?? normalized;
   normalized = lastSegment.replace(/XCUIElementType/gi, '').toLowerCase();
-  if (normalized.startsWith('ax')) {
-    normalized = normalized.replace(/^ax/, '');
-  }
   return normalized;
 }
diff --git a/src/utils/output.ts b/src/utils/output.ts
index 14535fbea..fd25da192 100644
--- a/src/utils/output.ts
+++ b/src/utils/output.ts
@@ -119,9 +119,6 @@ function formatRole(type: string): string {
   const isAndroidClass =
     raw.includes('.') &&
     (raw.startsWith('android.') || raw.startsWith('androidx.') || raw.startsWith('com.'));
-  if (normalized.startsWith('ax')) {
-    normalized = normalized.replace(/^ax/, '');
-  }
   if (normalized.includes('.')) {
     normalized = normalized
       .replace(/^android\.widget\./, '')
diff --git a/src/utils/snapshot.ts b/src/utils/snapshot.ts
index 01e9e393a..9f9e6d049 100644
--- a/src/utils/snapshot.ts
+++ b/src/utils/snapshot.ts
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ export type SnapshotState = {
   nodes: SnapshotNode[];
   createdAt: number;
   truncated?: boolean;
-  backend?: 'ax' | 'xctest' | 'android';
+  backend?: 'xctest' | 'android';
 };
 
 export function attachRefs(nodes: RawSnapshotNode[]): SnapshotNode[] {
diff --git a/test/integration/ios.test.ts b/test/integration/ios.test.ts
index c23dfc051..b09edd65b 100644
--- a/test/integration/ios.test.ts
+++ b/test/integration/ios.test.ts
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ test('ios physical device core lifecycle', { skip: shouldSkipIosPhysicalDevice()
   const openArgs = ['open', 'com.apple.Preferences', ...target, '--json', ...deviceSession];
   integration.runStep('open settings (device)', openArgs);
 
-  const snapshotArgs = ['snapshot', '--backend', 'xctest', '--json', ...deviceSession];
+  const snapshotArgs = ['snapshot', '--json', ...deviceSession];
   const snapshot = integration.runStep('snapshot (device)', snapshotArgs);
   integration.assertResult(
     Array.isArray(snapshot.json?.data?.nodes),
diff --git a/website/docs/docs/commands.md b/website/docs/docs/commands.md
index 44a432203..b0a2afe72 100644
--- a/website/docs/docs/commands.md
+++ b/website/docs/docs/commands.md
@@ -35,14 +35,12 @@ agent-device open MyApp "myapp://screen/to" --platform ios       # open deep lin
 ## Snapshot and inspect
 
 ```bash
-agent-device snapshot [-i] [-c] [-d <depth>] [-s <scope>] [--raw] [--backend ax|xctest]
+agent-device snapshot [-i] [-c] [-d <depth>] [-s <scope>] [--raw]
 agent-device get text @e1
 agent-device get attrs @e1
 ```
 
-- `--backend xctest` is the default backend.
-- `--backend ax` is simulator-only.
-- agent-device does not automatically switch from XCTest to AX; choose AX explicitly only for diagnostics.
+- iOS snapshots use XCTest on simulators and physical devices.
 
 ## Interactions
 
diff --git a/website/docs/index.md b/website/docs/index.md
index 807584ab8..5034a95d5 100644
--- a/website/docs/index.md
+++ b/website/docs/index.md
@@ -14,15 +14,15 @@ hero:
 
 features:
   - title: One CLI, many devices
-    details: Control iOS simulators + physical devices and Android emulators + devices with consistent snapshot and interaction commands.
+    details: Control iOS simulators, Android emulators, and physical devices with consistent snapshot and interaction commands.
   - title: Token-efficient UI snapshots
-    details: XCTest accessibility trees give agents a complete view of the UI while keeping output compact.
+    details: Accessibility trees give agents a complete view of the UI while keeping output compact.
   - title: Interactions that just work
     details: Tap, swipe, scroll, focus, and type with precise coordinates or semantic finders.
   - title: Session and replay
     details: Open apps, switch apps in-session, and replay recorded actions to reproduce flows across platforms.
   - title: Visual verification
-    details: Capture full-resolution screenshots for reporting and visual checks.
+    details: Capture full-resolution screenshots and video recordings for reporting and visual checks.
   - title: Traceable automation
-    details: Collect trace logs for XCTest and AX to debug flaky interactions.
+    details: Collect trace logs for XCTest to debug flaky interactions.
 ---