diff --git a/java/vortex-spark/src/test/java/dev/vortex/spark/read/VortexScanBuilderTest.java b/java/vortex-spark/src/test/java/dev/vortex/spark/read/VortexScanBuilderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9cc841b631b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/java/vortex-spark/src/test/java/dev/vortex/spark/read/VortexScanBuilderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright the Vortex contributors
+
+package dev.vortex.spark.read;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotSame;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.apache.spark.sql.connector.catalog.Column;
+import org.apache.spark.sql.connector.expressions.Expression;
+import org.apache.spark.sql.connector.expressions.Expressions;
+import org.apache.spark.sql.connector.expressions.LiteralValue;
+import org.apache.spark.sql.connector.expressions.NamedReference;
+import org.apache.spark.sql.connector.expressions.Transform;
+import org.apache.spark.sql.connector.expressions.filter.Predicate;
+import org.apache.spark.sql.types.DataTypes;
+import org.apache.spark.unsafe.types.UTF8String;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for {@link VortexScanBuilder}, focusing on how {@link VortexScanBuilder#pushPredicates(Predicate[])}
+ * splits predicates between Vortex pushdown and Spark post-scan evaluation.
+ *
+ * <p>Characterizes the partition-column exclusion rule (partition columns live in directory paths, not in the Vortex
+ * files, so predicates referencing them must stay with Spark), the handling of unsupported operators, and the defensive
+ * copy returned by {@link VortexScanBuilder#pushedPredicates()}.
+ */
+final class VortexScanBuilderTest {
+
+    private static VortexScanBuilder builderWithColumns(Transform[] partitionTransforms, Column... columns) {
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = new VortexScanBuilder(Map.of(), partitionTransforms);
+        builder.addPath("/tmp/data.vortex");
+        for (Column column : columns) {
+            builder.addColumn(column);
+        }
+        return builder;
+    }
+
+    private static Predicate equality(String column, int value) {
+        return new Predicate("=", new Expression[] {ref(column), new LiteralValue<>(value, DataTypes.IntegerType)});
+    }
+
+    private static NamedReference ref(String name) {
+        return Expressions.column(name);
+    }
+
+    // --- pushPredicates: data columns ---
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Predicate on a data column is pushed and removed from post-scan predicates")
+    void dataColumnPredicateIsPushed() {
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = builderWithColumns(
+                new Transform[0],
+                Column.create("id", DataTypes.IntegerType),
+                Column.create("name", DataTypes.StringType));
+
+        Predicate predicate = equality("id", 42);
+        Predicate[] postScan = builder.pushPredicates(new Predicate[] {predicate});
+
+        assertEquals(0, postScan.length);
+        assertArrayEquals(new Predicate[] {predicate}, builder.pushedPredicates());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Predicate on a column missing from the read schema is left to Spark")
+    void unknownColumnPredicateIsNotPushed() {
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = builderWithColumns(new Transform[0], Column.create("id", DataTypes.IntegerType));
+
+        Predicate predicate = equality("missing", 1);
+        Predicate[] postScan = builder.pushPredicates(new Predicate[] {predicate});
+
+        assertArrayEquals(new Predicate[] {predicate}, postScan);
+        assertEquals(0, builder.pushedPredicates().length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Predicate with an unsupported operator is left to Spark")
+    void unsupportedOperatorIsNotPushed() {
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = builderWithColumns(new Transform[0], Column.create("name", DataTypes.StringType));
+
+        // LIKE with arbitrary user pattern is not a translatable V2 predicate name.
+        Predicate predicate = new Predicate(
+                "LIKE",
+                new Expression[] {ref("name"), new LiteralValue<>(UTF8String.fromString("%a%"), DataTypes.StringType)});
+        Predicate[] postScan = builder.pushPredicates(new Predicate[] {predicate});
+
+        assertArrayEquals(new Predicate[] {predicate}, postScan);
+        assertEquals(0, builder.pushedPredicates().length);
+    }
+
+    // --- pushPredicates: partition columns ---
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Predicate on a partition column is left to Spark")
+    void partitionColumnPredicateIsNotPushed() {
+        Transform[] transforms = new Transform[] {Expressions.identity("year")};
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = builderWithColumns(
+                transforms, Column.create("id", DataTypes.IntegerType), Column.create("year", DataTypes.IntegerType));
+
+        Predicate predicate = equality("year", 2024);
+        Predicate[] postScan = builder.pushPredicates(new Predicate[] {predicate});
+
+        assertArrayEquals(new Predicate[] {predicate}, postScan);
+        assertEquals(0, builder.pushedPredicates().length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Mixed predicates split into pushed (data) and post-scan (partition)")
+    void mixedPredicatesAreSplit() {
+        Transform[] transforms = new Transform[] {Expressions.identity("year")};
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = builderWithColumns(
+                transforms, Column.create("id", DataTypes.IntegerType), Column.create("year", DataTypes.IntegerType));
+
+        Predicate onData = equality("id", 7);
+        Predicate onPartition = equality("year", 2024);
+        Predicate[] postScan = builder.pushPredicates(new Predicate[] {onData, onPartition});
+
+        assertArrayEquals(new Predicate[] {onPartition}, postScan);
+        assertArrayEquals(new Predicate[] {onData}, builder.pushedPredicates());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("AND spanning a data column and a partition column is left to Spark as a whole")
+    void conjunctionSpanningPartitionColumnIsNotPushed() {
+        Transform[] transforms = new Transform[] {Expressions.identity("year")};
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = builderWithColumns(
+                transforms, Column.create("id", DataTypes.IntegerType), Column.create("year", DataTypes.IntegerType));
+
+        Predicate and =
+                new org.apache.spark.sql.connector.expressions.filter.And(equality("id", 7), equality("year", 2024));
+        Predicate[] postScan = builder.pushPredicates(new Predicate[] {and});
+
+        assertArrayEquals(new Predicate[] {and}, postScan);
+        assertEquals(0, builder.pushedPredicates().length);
+    }
+
+    // --- pushedPredicates ---
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("pushedPredicates is empty before any pushPredicates call")
+    void pushedPredicatesEmptyByDefault() {
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = builderWithColumns(new Transform[0], Column.create("id", DataTypes.IntegerType));
+        assertEquals(0, builder.pushedPredicates().length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("pushedPredicates returns a defensive copy")
+    void pushedPredicatesReturnsCopy() {
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = builderWithColumns(new Transform[0], Column.create("id", DataTypes.IntegerType));
+        builder.pushPredicates(new Predicate[] {equality("id", 1)});
+
+        Predicate[] first = builder.pushedPredicates();
+        Predicate[] second = builder.pushedPredicates();
+        assertNotSame(first, second);
+
+        // Mutating one returned array must not leak into subsequent calls.
+        first[0] = null;
+        assertEquals(1, builder.pushedPredicates().length);
+        assertNotNull(builder.pushedPredicates()[0]);
+    }
+
+    // --- build ---
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("build without paths fails fast")
+    void buildWithoutPathsThrows() {
+        VortexScanBuilder builder = new VortexScanBuilder(Map.of());
+        builder.addColumn(Column.create("id", DataTypes.IntegerType));
+        assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, builder::build);
+    }
+}