diff --git a/.github/workflows/e2e.yml b/.github/workflows/e2e.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6be11a73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/e2e.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,221 @@
+name: E2E Tests
+
+on:
+  push:
+    branches: [master]
+  pull_request:
+    branches: [master]
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
+jobs:
+  e2e:
+    name: Run E2E Tests
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+
+    services:
+      postgres:
+        image: postgres:16
+        env:
+          POSTGRES_USER: nekobox
+          POSTGRES_PASSWORD: nekobox
+          POSTGRES_DB: nekobox_e2e
+        ports:
+          - 5432:5432
+        options: >-
+          --health-cmd pg_isready
+          --health-interval 10s
+          --health-timeout 5s
+          --health-retries 5
+
+      redis:
+        image: redis:7
+        ports:
+          - 6379:6379
+        options: >-
+          --health-cmd "redis-cli ping"
+          --health-interval 10s
+          --health-timeout 5s
+          --health-retries 5
+
+      mailhog:
+        image: mailhog/mailhog:latest
+        ports:
+          - 1025:1025
+          - 8025:8025
+        options: >-
+          --health-cmd "wget -qO- http://localhost:8025/api/v2/messages || exit 1"
+          --health-interval 5s
+          --health-timeout 3s
+          --health-retries 10
+
+    steps:
+      - name: Checkout code
+        uses: actions/checkout@v4
+
+      - name: Set up Go
+        uses: actions/setup-go@v5
+        with:
+          go-version-file: go.mod
+
+      - name: Set up Node.js
+        uses: actions/setup-node@v4
+        with:
+          node-version: '20'
+
+      - name: Set up pnpm
+        uses: pnpm/action-setup@v4
+        with:
+          version: latest
+
+      - name: Start MinIO (pgsty/minio)
+        run: |
+          docker run -d \
+            --name minio \
+            --network host \
+            -e MINIO_ROOT_USER=minioadmin \
+            -e MINIO_ROOT_PASSWORD=minioadmin \
+            pgsty/minio \
+            server /data --console-address ":9001"
+
+      - name: Wait for MinIO
+        run: |
+          echo "Waiting for MinIO S3 API to be ready..."
+          for i in $(seq 1 60); do
+            if curl -sf http://localhost:9000/minio/health/live > /dev/null 2>&1; then
+              echo "MinIO is ready (health check passed)"
+              sleep 2
+              exit 0
+            fi
+            echo "Waiting for MinIO ($i/60)..."
+            sleep 2
+          done
+          echo "MinIO did not become ready in time"
+          docker logs minio || true
+          exit 1
+
+      - name: Create MinIO bucket
+        run: |
+          curl -fsSL https://dl.min.io/client/mc/release/linux-amd64/mc -o ./mc
+          chmod +x ./mc
+          ./mc alias set local http://localhost:9000 minioadmin minioadmin
+          ./mc mb --ignore-existing local/nekobox-e2e
+          ./mc ls local/nekobox-e2e
+          echo "minio-smoke" > /tmp/minio-smoke.txt
+          ./mc cp /tmp/minio-smoke.txt local/nekobox-e2e/health/smoke.txt
+          ./mc stat local/nekobox-e2e/health/smoke.txt
+
+      # ── Backend ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+      - name: Build backend
+        run: |
+          COVERPKG=$(go list ./... | paste -sd "," -)
+          go build -cover -covermode=atomic -coverpkg="$COVERPKG" -o ./nekobox-server ./cmd
+
+      - name: Start backend (port 8080)
+        run: |
+          mkdir -p coverage/backend
+          GOCOVERDIR=$PWD/coverage/backend NEKOBOX_CONFIG_PATH=conf/app.e2e.ini ./nekobox-server web &
+          echo $! > /tmp/nekobox-server.pid
+
+      # ── Frontend ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+      - name: Install frontend dependencies
+        working-directory: web
+        run: pnpm install
+
+      - name: Start frontend dev server (port 3000)
+        working-directory: web
+        run: pnpm dev:e2e &
+        env:
+          VITE_EXTERNAL_URL: http://localhost:3000
+
+      - name: Wait for frontend to be ready
+        run: |
+          for i in $(seq 1 30); do
+            if curl -sf http://localhost:3000 > /dev/null 2>&1; then
+              echo "Frontend is up!"
+              break
+            fi
+            echo "Waiting for frontend ($i/30)..."
+            sleep 2
+          done
+
+      # ── Playwright ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+      - name: Install Playwright dependencies
+        working-directory: e2e
+        run: npm install
+
+      - name: Install Playwright browsers
+        working-directory: e2e
+        run: npx playwright install --with-deps chromium
+
+      - name: Run Playwright E2E tests
+        working-directory: e2e
+        run: npx playwright test
+        env:
+          E2E_BASE_URL: http://localhost:3000
+          E2E_MAILHOG_URL: http://localhost:8025
+
+      - name: Stop backend and generate coverage.txt
+        if: always()
+        run: |
+          if [ -f /tmp/nekobox-server.pid ]; then
+            BACKEND_PID=$(cat /tmp/nekobox-server.pid)
+            if kill -0 "$BACKEND_PID" 2>/dev/null; then
+              kill "$BACKEND_PID"
+              for i in $(seq 1 20); do
+                if ! kill -0 "$BACKEND_PID" 2>/dev/null; then
+                  break
+                fi
+                sleep 1
+              done
+              if kill -0 "$BACKEND_PID" 2>/dev/null; then
+                kill -9 "$BACKEND_PID" || true
+              fi
+            fi
+          fi
+
+          mkdir -p coverage
+          if [ -d coverage/backend ] && [ -n "$(ls -A coverage/backend)" ]; then
+            go tool covdata textfmt -i=coverage/backend -o=coverage/coverage.txt
+            echo "Route coverage entries:"
+            grep 'internal/route/' coverage/coverage.txt | head -n 20 || true
+
+            if ! grep -q 'internal/route/' coverage/coverage.txt; then
+              echo "::error::No internal/route coverage found in coverage/coverage.txt"
+              exit 1
+            fi
+          else
+            echo "No backend coverage data found" > coverage/coverage.txt
+            echo "::error::No backend coverage data found in coverage/backend"
+            exit 1
+          fi
+
+      - name: Upload Playwright report
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+        if: always()
+        with:
+          name: playwright-report
+          path: e2e/playwright-report/
+          retention-days: 30
+
+      - name: Upload backend coverage artifact
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+        if: always()
+        with:
+          name: coverage
+          path: coverage/coverage.txt
+          retention-days: 30
+
+      - name: Upload coverage to Codecov
+        uses: codecov/codecov-action@v4
+        if: always()
+        with:
+          token: ${{ secrets.CODECOV_TOKEN }}
+          files: ./coverage/coverage.txt
+          flags: e2e
+          name: e2e-tests
+
diff --git a/.github/workflows/go.yml b/.github/workflows/go.yml
index 943e3318..10dd0454 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/go.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/go.yml
@@ -37,6 +37,10 @@ jobs:
           DB_USER: root
           DB_PASSWORD: root
           DB_DATABASE: nekobox
+      - name: Upload coverage reports to Codecov
+        uses: codecov/codecov-action@v5
+        with:
+          token: ${{ secrets.CODECOV_TOKEN }}
 
   test-postgres:
     name: Test Postgres
@@ -68,6 +72,10 @@ jobs:
           DB_USER: postgres
           DB_PASSWORD: postgres
           DB_DATABASE: nekobox
+      - name: Upload coverage reports to Codecov
+        uses: codecov/codecov-action@v5
+        with:
+          token: ${{ secrets.CODECOV_TOKEN }}
 
   lint:
     name: Lint
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index 9327f7c4..63f472e5 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -21,3 +21,12 @@ app.ini
 .vscode
 nekobox
 share.yaml
+
+node_modules
+
+# E2E test artifacts
+e2e/node_modules
+e2e/.auth
+e2e/test-results/
+e2e/playwright-report/
+e2e/.env.local
diff --git a/conf/app.e2e.ini b/conf/app.e2e.ini
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..2fa302ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/conf/app.e2e.ini
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+; E2E test configuration.
+; Used by: NEKOBOX_CONFIG_PATH=conf/app.e2e.ini
+; The Go backend listens on :8080; the Vite dev-server (port 3000)
+; proxies /api → http://127.0.0.1:8080.
+
+[app]
+production    = false
+title         = NekoBox E2E Test
+external_url  = http://localhost:3000
+
+[security]
+enable_text_censor = false
+
+[server]
+port     = 8080
+salt     = e2e-test-salt-value-placeholder
+xsrf_key = e2e-test-xsrf-key-placeholder
+
+[database]
+type     = postgres
+host     = localhost
+port     = 5432
+user     = nekobox
+password = nekobox
+name     = nekobox_e2e
+
+[redis]
+addr     = localhost:6379
+password =
+
+[recaptcha]
+; Universal test keys – accepted by Google's verify API for any token.
+site_key   = 6LeIxAcTAAAAAJcZVRqyHh71UMIEGNQ_MXjiZKhI
+server_key = 6LeIxAcTAAAAAGG-vFI1TnRWxMZNFuojJ4WifJWe
+
+[upload]
+default_avatar     = https://example.com/default-avatar.png
+default_background = https://example.com/default-bg.png
+image_endpoint     = http://localhost:9000
+image_access_id    = minioadmin
+image_access_secret = minioadmin
+image_bucket       = nekobox-e2e
+image_bucket_cdn_host = localhost:9000
+
+[mail]
+account  = noreply@nekobox.local
+password =
+port     = 1025
+smtp     = localhost
+
diff --git a/e2e/package-lock.json b/e2e/package-lock.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8c764299
--- /dev/null
+++ b/e2e/package-lock.json
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+{
+  "name": "nekobox-e2e",
+  "version": "1.0.0",
+  "lockfileVersion": 3,
+  "requires": true,
+  "packages": {
+    "": {
+      "name": "nekobox-e2e",
+      "version": "1.0.0",
+      "devDependencies": {
+        "@playwright/test": "^1.49.1",
+        "@types/node": "^22.10.2"
+      }
+    },
+    "node_modules/@playwright/test": {
+      "version": "1.59.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@playwright/test/-/test-1.59.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-PG6q63nQg5c9rIi4/Z5lR5IVF7yU5MqmKaPOe0HSc0O2cX1fPi96sUQu5j7eo4gKCkB2AnNGoWt7y4/Xx3Kcqg==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "Apache-2.0",
+      "dependencies": {
+        "playwright": "1.59.1"
+      },
+      "bin": {
+        "playwright": "cli.js"
+      },
+      "engines": {
+        "node": ">=18"
+      }
+    },
+    "node_modules/@types/node": {
+      "version": "22.19.17",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@types/node/-/node-22.19.17.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-wGdMcf+vPYM6jikpS/qhg6WiqSV/OhG+jeeHT/KlVqxYfD40iYJf9/AE1uQxVWFvU7MipKRkRv8NSHiCGgPr8Q==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT",
+      "dependencies": {
+        "undici-types": "~6.21.0"
+      }
+    },
+    "node_modules/fsevents": {
+      "version": "2.3.2",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/fsevents/-/fsevents-2.3.2.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-xiqMQR4xAeHTuB9uWm+fFRcIOgKBMiOBP+eXiyT7jsgVCq1bkVygt00oASowB7EdtpOHaaPgKt812P9ab+DDKA==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "hasInstallScript": true,
+      "license": "MIT",
+      "optional": true,
+      "os": [
+        "darwin"
+      ],
+      "engines": {
+        "node": "^8.16.0 || ^10.6.0 || >=11.0.0"
+      }
+    },
+    "node_modules/playwright": {
+      "version": "1.59.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/playwright/-/playwright-1.59.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-C8oWjPR3F81yljW9o5OxcWzfh6avkVwDD2VYdwIGqTkl+OGFISgypqzfu7dOe4QNLL2aqcWBmI3PMtLIK233lw==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "Apache-2.0",
+      "dependencies": {
+        "playwright-core": "1.59.1"
+      },
+      "bin": {
+        "playwright": "cli.js"
+      },
+      "engines": {
+        "node": ">=18"
+      },
+      "optionalDependencies": {
+        "fsevents": "2.3.2"
+      }
+    },
+    "node_modules/playwright-core": {
+      "version": "1.59.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/playwright-core/-/playwright-core-1.59.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-HBV/RJg81z5BiiZ9yPzIiClYV/QMsDCKUyogwH9p3MCP6IYjUFu/MActgYAvK0oWyV9NlwM3GLBjADyWgydVyg==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "Apache-2.0",
+      "bin": {
+        "playwright-core": "cli.js"
+      },
+      "engines": {
+        "node": ">=18"
+      }
+    },
+    "node_modules/undici-types": {
+      "version": "6.21.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/undici-types/-/undici-types-6.21.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-iwDZqg0QAGrg9Rav5H4n0M64c3mkR59cJ6wQp+7C4nI0gsmExaedaYLNO44eT4AtBBwjbTiGPMlt2Md0T9H9JQ==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT"
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/e2e/package.json b/e2e/package.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c41302b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/e2e/package.json
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+{
+  "name": "nekobox-e2e",
+  "version": "1.0.0",
+  "private": true,
+  "scripts": {
+    "test": "playwright test",
+    "test:ui": "playwright test --ui",
+    "test:headed": "playwright test --headed",
+    "test:debug": "playwright test --debug",
+    "report": "playwright show-report"
+  },
+  "devDependencies": {
+    "@playwright/test": "^1.49.1",
+    "@types/node": "^22.10.2"
+  }
+}
+
diff --git a/e2e/playwright.config.ts b/e2e/playwright.config.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a5c3146e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/e2e/playwright.config.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+import { defineConfig, devices } from '@playwright/test';
+
+export default defineConfig({
+    testDir: './tests',
+
+    // Run tests in parallel, but keep worker count conservative for CI stability.
+    fullyParallel: true,
+    workers: process.env.CI ? 2 : undefined,
+    timeout: process.env.CI ? 90_000 : 60_000,
+
+    forbidOnly: !!process.env.CI,
+    retries: process.env.CI ? 1 : 0,
+
+    reporter: [
+        ['html'],
+        ...(process.env.CI ? ([['github']] as any) : []),
+    ],
+
+    // Real reCAPTCHA + remote verify can take longer than default 5s in CI.
+    // Image upload (MinIO) can be slow during initialization.
+    expect: {
+        timeout: process.env.CI ? 30_000 : 10_000,
+    },
+
+    use: {
+        baseURL: process.env.E2E_BASE_URL || 'http://localhost:3000',
+        trace: 'on-first-retry',
+        screenshot: 'only-on-failure',
+        // Give Vue time to hydrate and animations to settle.
+        actionTimeout: 10_000,
+        navigationTimeout: 30_000,
+    },
+
+    projects: [
+        {
+            name: 'chromium',
+            use: { ...devices['Desktop Chrome'] },
+        },
+    ],
+});
+
diff --git a/e2e/tests/auth.spec.ts b/e2e/tests/auth.spec.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6f22431c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/e2e/tests/auth.spec.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+import { test, expect } from '@playwright/test';
+import { clickSubmitWhenReady, uniqueUser } from './helpers';
+
+test.describe('Authentication', () => {
+
+    test('user can sign up and is redirected to sign-in', async ({ page }) => {
+        const user = uniqueUser('signup');
+
+        await page.goto('/sign-up');
+        await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);
+        await page.locator('input[name="domain"]').fill(user.domain);
+        await page.locator('input[name="name"]').fill(user.name);
+        await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill(user.password);
+        await page.locator('input[name="repeatPassword"]').fill(user.password);
+        await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+
+        // Successful registration redirects to /sign-in.
+        await expect(page).toHaveURL(/\/sign-in$/);
+    });
+
+    test('user can sign in and land on their profile page', async ({ page }) => {
+        const user = uniqueUser('signin');
+
+        // Register first.
+        await page.goto('/sign-up');
+        await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);
+        await page.locator('input[name="domain"]').fill(user.domain);
+        await page.locator('input[name="name"]').fill(user.name);
+        await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill(user.password);
+        await page.locator('input[name="repeatPassword"]').fill(user.password);
+        await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+        await expect(page).toHaveURL(/\/sign-in$/);
+
+        // Sign in.
+        await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);
+        await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill(user.password);
+        await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+
+        // Should land on the user's own profile page.
+        await expect(page).toHaveURL(new RegExp(`/_/${user.domain}$`));
+        await expect(page).toHaveTitle(new RegExp(user.name));
+    });
+
+    test('sign-up with duplicate email shows an error', async ({ page }) => {
+        const user = uniqueUser('dupmail');
+        const duplicateDomain = `${user.domain.slice(0, 19)}2`;
+
+        // First registration.
+        await page.goto('/sign-up');
+        await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);
+        await page.locator('input[name="domain"]').fill(user.domain);
+        await page.locator('input[name="name"]').fill(user.name);
+        await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill(user.password);
+        await page.locator('input[name="repeatPassword"]').fill(user.password);
+        await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+        await expect(page).toHaveURL(/\/sign-in$/);
+
+        // Try to register again with the same email but a different domain.
+        await page.goto('/sign-up');
+        await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);       // duplicate
+        await page.locator('input[name="domain"]').fill(duplicateDomain);
+        await page.locator('input[name="name"]').fill(user.name);
+        await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill(user.password);
+        await page.locator('input[name="repeatPassword"]').fill(user.password);
+
+        const duplicateSignUpResponsePromise = page.waitForResponse(resp =>
+            resp.url().includes('/auth/sign-up') && resp.request().method() === 'POST'
+        );
+        await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+
+        const duplicateSignUpResponse = await duplicateSignUpResponsePromise;
+        expect(duplicateSignUpResponse.status()).toBe(400);
+        const duplicateSignUpPayload = await duplicateSignUpResponse.json();
+
+        // Error toast must appear.
+        await expect(duplicateSignUpPayload.msg).toContain('邮箱');
+    });
+
+    test('sign-in with wrong password shows an error', async ({ page }) => {
+        const user = uniqueUser('wrongpw');
+
+        // Register.
+        await page.goto('/sign-up');
+        await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);
+        await page.locator('input[name="domain"]').fill(user.domain);
+        await page.locator('input[name="name"]').fill(user.name);
+        await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill(user.password);
+        await page.locator('input[name="repeatPassword"]').fill(user.password);
+        await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+        await expect(page).toHaveURL(/\/sign-in$/);
+
+        // Sign in with wrong password.
+        await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);
+        await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill('totally-wrong-password');
+
+        const wrongPasswordSignInResponsePromise = page.waitForResponse(resp =>
+            resp.url().includes('/auth/sign-in') && resp.request().method() === 'POST'
+        );
+        await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+
+        const wrongPasswordSignInResponse = await wrongPasswordSignInResponsePromise;
+        expect(wrongPasswordSignInResponse.status()).toBe(400);
+        const wrongPasswordSignInPayload = await wrongPasswordSignInResponse.json();
+
+        // Error toast must appear; URL must not change.
+        await expect(wrongPasswordSignInPayload.msg).toContain('密码');
+        await expect(page).toHaveURL('/sign-in');
+    });
+});
+
diff --git a/e2e/tests/helpers.ts b/e2e/tests/helpers.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..627b6b33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/e2e/tests/helpers.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+import { expect, type Page } from '@playwright/test';
+import { randomBytes } from 'node:crypto';
+
+export async function clickSubmitWhenReady(page: Page): Promise<void> {
+    const submitButton = page.locator('button[type="submit"]');
+    await expect(submitButton).toBeVisible();
+    await expect(submitButton).toBeEnabled();
+    await submitButton.click();
+}
+
+// ─── Unique test data ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Returns a unique user object based on the given prefix + current timestamp.
+ * Each test run gets a different domain/email so repeated local runs do not clash.
+ */
+export function uniqueUser(prefix: string) {
+    const ts = Date.now().toString(36);
+    const nonce = randomBytes(3).toString('hex');
+    // Keep domain <= 20 chars to satisfy form/backend constraints.
+    const domainPrefix = prefix.toLowerCase().replace(/[^a-z0-9-]/g, '').slice(0, 8) || 'user';
+    const domain = `${domainPrefix}_${ts}${nonce}`.slice(0, 20);
+
+    return {
+        email: `${domain}@example.com`,
+        domain,
+        name: `${prefix} ${nonce}`,
+        password: 'Password123!',
+    };
+}
+
+// ─── MailHog ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+const MAILHOG_BASE = process.env.E2E_MAILHOG_URL ?? 'http://localhost:8025';
+
+interface MailhogResponse {
+    items: Array<{
+        Content: {
+            Headers: Record<string, string[]>;
+            Body: string;
+        };
+    }>;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Polls the MailHog HTTP API until an email addressed to `to` appears,
+ * or the timeout is reached.
+ *
+ * @returns true if the email was found within the timeout.
+ */
+export async function waitForMailhogEmail(to: string, timeoutMs = 15_000): Promise<boolean> {
+    const deadline = Date.now() + timeoutMs;
+
+    while (Date.now() < deadline) {
+        try {
+            const res = await fetch(`${MAILHOG_BASE}/api/v2/messages`);
+            if (res.ok) {
+                const data = (await res.json()) as MailhogResponse;
+                for (const item of data.items) {
+                    const toHeaders = item.Content?.Headers?.['To'] ?? [];
+                    if (toHeaders.some(addr => addr.includes(to))) {
+                        return true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        } catch {
+            // MailHog not yet ready – keep polling.
+        }
+        await new Promise(r => setTimeout(r, 500));
+    }
+    return false;
+}
+
+// ─── Auth flow helper ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+type User = ReturnType<typeof uniqueUser>;
+
+/**
+ * Registers and signs in a test user, leaving the browser on the user's
+ * profile page.  Returns the user object for later use.
+ */
+export async function registerAndLogin(page: Page, prefix: string): Promise<User> {
+    const user = uniqueUser(prefix);
+
+    // ── Sign up
+    await page.goto('/sign-up');
+    await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);
+    await page.locator('input[name="domain"]').fill(user.domain);
+    await page.locator('input[name="name"]').fill(user.name);
+    await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill(user.password);
+    await page.locator('input[name="repeatPassword"]').fill(user.password);
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+    await expect(page).toHaveURL(/\/sign-in$/);
+
+    // ── Sign in
+    await page.locator('input[name="email"]').fill(user.email);
+    await page.locator('input[name="password"]').fill(user.password);
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+    await expect(page).toHaveURL(new RegExp(`/_/${user.domain}$`));
+
+    return user;
+}
+
diff --git a/e2e/tests/questions.spec.ts b/e2e/tests/questions.spec.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..55bde926
--- /dev/null
+++ b/e2e/tests/questions.spec.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+import { test, expect, type Page } from '@playwright/test';
+import { clickSubmitWhenReady, registerAndLogin, waitForMailhogEmail } from './helpers';
+
+function waitForAnswerResponse(page: Page) {
+    return page.waitForResponse(resp =>
+        /\/api\/mine\/questions\/\d+\/answer$/.test(resp.url()) && resp.request().method() === 'PUT'
+    );
+}
+
+function waitForPostQuestionResponse(page: Page, domain: string) {
+    return page.waitForResponse(resp =>
+        resp.request().method() === 'POST' &&
+        new RegExp(`/api/users/${domain}/questions$`).test(new URL(resp.url()).pathname)
+    );
+}
+
+// ─── Post a question ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+test('can post a question to a profile box', async ({ page }) => {
+    const user = await registerAndLogin(page, 'qpost');
+
+    await page.goto(`/_/${user.domain}`);
+    await page.locator('textarea[name="content"]').fill('What is your favorite color?');
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+
+    // A success banner with the private link appears.
+    await expect(page.locator('.uk-alert-success')).toBeVisible({ timeout: 10_000 });
+    await expect(page.locator('.uk-alert-success')).toContainText('发送问题成功');
+});
+
+// ─── Full question lifecycle ───────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+test('owner can answer a question and the answer is shown publicly', async ({ page }) => {
+    const user = await registerAndLogin(page, 'qanswer');
+
+    // 1. Post a question (as the signed-in owner – valid for testing).
+    await page.goto(`/_/${user.domain}`);
+    await page.locator('textarea[name="content"]').fill('What is your favorite programming language?');
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+    await expect(page.locator('.uk-alert-success')).toBeVisible({ timeout: 10_000 });
+
+    // 2. Navigate to "my questions" and open the first one.
+    await page.goto('/mine/questions');
+    await expect(page.locator('p.uk-text-small').first()).toContainText(
+        'What is your favorite programming language?',
+        { timeout: 10_000 },
+    );
+    await page.locator('p.uk-text-small').first().click();
+
+    // 3. On the question-detail page, the owner sees the answer form.
+    await expect(page).toHaveURL(new RegExp(`/_/${user.domain}/\\d+`));
+    await expect(page.locator('textarea[name="answer"]')).toBeVisible({ timeout: 10_000 });
+
+    // 4. Submit the answer.
+    await page.locator('textarea[name="answer"]').fill('Go is my favorite!');
+    const answerResponsePromise = waitForAnswerResponse(page);
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+    const answerResponse = await answerResponsePromise;
+    expect(answerResponse.status()).toBe(200);
+    const answerPayload = await answerResponse.json();
+    expect(answerPayload.data).toContain('提问回复成功');
+
+    // 5. The answer text is now rendered in the card body.
+    await expect(page.locator('.uk-card-body p.uk-text-small').first()).toContainText('Go is my favorite!');
+});
+
+// ─── Email notifications ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+test('owner receives a "new question" email when someone posts a question', async ({ page }) => {
+    const owner = await registerAndLogin(page, 'mailowner');
+
+    // Post a question to the owner's box (as the signed-in owner for simplicity).
+    await page.goto(`/_/${owner.domain}`);
+    await page.locator('textarea[name="content"]').fill('Will you get an email about this?');
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+    await expect(page.locator('.uk-alert-success')).toBeVisible({ timeout: 10_000 });
+
+    // MailHog should receive the "new question" notification.
+    const received = await waitForMailhogEmail(owner.email, 30_000);
+    expect(received).toBe(true);
+});
+
+test('questioner receives a reply email when their question is answered', async ({ page }) => {
+    const owner = await registerAndLogin(page, 'replyowner');
+    const replyEmail = `reply-${owner.domain}-${Date.now()}@example.com`;
+
+    // 1. Post a question with an email-reply address.
+    await page.goto(`/_/${owner.domain}`);
+    await page.locator('textarea[name="content"]').fill('Will I get a reply notification?');
+
+    // Check the "接收回复通知" checkbox (the second checkbox in the form).
+    await page.locator('label:has-text("我想接收回复通知") input[type="checkbox"]').check();
+    await page.locator('input[name="receiveReplyEmail"]').fill(replyEmail);
+
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+    await expect(page.locator('.uk-alert-success')).toBeVisible({ timeout: 10_000 });
+
+    // 2. Open the question from the mine list.
+    await page.goto('/mine/questions');
+    await page.locator('p.uk-text-small').first().click();
+    await expect(page).toHaveURL(new RegExp(`/_/${owner.domain}/\\d+`));
+
+    // 3. Answer the question – this triggers the reply email.
+    await expect(page.locator('textarea[name="answer"]')).toBeVisible({ timeout: 10_000 });
+    await page.locator('textarea[name="answer"]').fill('Yes, you will receive a reply!');
+    const replyAnswerResponsePromise = waitForAnswerResponse(page);
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+    const replyAnswerResponse = await replyAnswerResponsePromise;
+    expect(replyAnswerResponse.status()).toBe(200);
+    const replyAnswerPayload = await replyAnswerResponse.json();
+    expect(replyAnswerPayload.data).toContain('提问回复成功');
+
+    // 4. MailHog must have delivered the reply notification to replyEmail.
+    const received = await waitForMailhogEmail(replyEmail, 30_000);
+    expect(received).toBe(true);
+});
+
+// ─── Image upload (MinIO / S3) ────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+test('can post a question with an image (MinIO upload)', async ({ page }) => {
+    const user = await registerAndLogin(page, 'imgupload');
+
+    await page.goto(`/_/${user.domain}`);
+
+    // Create a minimal 1×1 PNG as a Buffer and attach it via the file chooser.
+    const minimalPNG = Buffer.from([
+        0x89, 0x50, 0x4e, 0x47, 0x0d, 0x0a, 0x1a, 0x0a, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x0d,
+        0x49, 0x48, 0x44, 0x52, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x01, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x01,
+        0x08, 0x02, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x90, 0x77, 0x53, 0xde, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00,
+        0x0c, 0x49, 0x44, 0x41, 0x54, 0x08, 0xd7, 0x63, 0xf8, 0xcf, 0xc0, 0x00,
+        0x00, 0x00, 0x02, 0x00, 0x01, 0xe2, 0x21, 0xbc, 0x33, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00,
+        0x00, 0x49, 0x45, 0x4e, 0x44, 0xae, 0x42, 0x60, 0x82,
+    ]);
+
+    await page.locator('textarea[name="content"]').fill('Check out this image!');
+
+    // Attach via the hidden file input.
+    const fileInput = page.locator('input[name="images"][type="file"]');
+    await fileInput.setInputFiles({
+        name: 'test.png',
+        mimeType: 'image/png',
+        buffer: minimalPNG,
+    });
+
+    const postQuestionResponsePromise = waitForPostQuestionResponse(page, user.domain);
+    await clickSubmitWhenReady(page);
+    const postQuestionResponse = await postQuestionResponsePromise;
+
+    const postQuestionBody = await postQuestionResponse.json();
+    expect(postQuestionResponse.status(), `Post question failed: ${JSON.stringify(postQuestionBody)}`).toBe(200);
+    expect(postQuestionBody?.data ?? '').toContain('发送问题成功');
+
+    // Success message must appear (image upload in CI can take longer due to MinIO initialization).
+    await expect(page.locator('.uk-alert-success')).toBeVisible({ timeout: 30_000 });
+    await expect(page.locator('.uk-alert-success')).toContainText('发送问题成功');
+});
+
diff --git a/go.mod b/go.mod
index 8574b966..7c7d726a 100644
--- a/go.mod
+++ b/go.mod
@@ -5,10 +5,11 @@ go 1.24
 require (
 	github.com/aliyun/alibaba-cloud-sdk-go v1.62.26
 	github.com/aliyun/aliyun-oss-go-sdk v2.2.4+incompatible
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.24.0
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config v1.26.1
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.16.12
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3 v1.47.5
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.24.1
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config v1.26.6
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.16.16
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/s3/manager v1.15.15
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3 v1.48.1
 	github.com/flamego/cache v1.1.0
 	github.com/flamego/cors v1.2.1
 	github.com/flamego/flamego v1.9.4
@@ -45,18 +46,18 @@ require (
 require (
 	github.com/alecthomas/participle/v2 v2.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws/protocol/eventstream v1.5.4 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/ec2/imds v1.14.10 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.2.9 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/endpoints/v2 v2.5.9 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/ini v1.7.2 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/v4a v1.2.9 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/ec2/imds v1.14.11 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.2.10 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/endpoints/v2 v2.5.10 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/ini v1.7.3 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/v4a v1.2.10 // indirect
 	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/accept-encoding v1.10.4 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/checksum v1.2.9 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/presigned-url v1.10.9 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/s3shared v1.16.9 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.18.5 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/ssooidc v1.21.5 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.26.5 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/checksum v1.2.10 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/presigned-url v1.10.10 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/s3shared v1.16.10 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.18.7 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/ssooidc v1.21.7 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.26.7 // indirect
 	github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.19.0 // indirect
 	github.com/aymanbagabas/go-osc52/v2 v2.0.1 // indirect
 	github.com/baiyubin/aliyun-sts-go-sdk v0.0.0-20180326062324-cfa1a18b161f // indirect
diff --git a/go.sum b/go.sum
index 6ad7efce..8899406b 100644
--- a/go.sum
+++ b/go.sum
@@ -52,40 +52,42 @@ github.com/aliyun/alibaba-cloud-sdk-go v1.62.26/go.mod h1:Api2AkmMgGaSUAhmk76oaF
 github.com/aliyun/aliyun-oss-go-sdk v2.2.4+incompatible h1:cD1bK/FmYTpL+r5i9lQ9EU6ScAjA173EVsii7gAc6SQ=
 github.com/aliyun/aliyun-oss-go-sdk v2.2.4+incompatible/go.mod h1:T/Aws4fEfogEE9v+HPhhw+CntffsBHJ8nXQCwKr0/g8=
 github.com/antihax/optional v1.0.0/go.mod h1:uupD/76wgC+ih3iEmQUL+0Ugr19nfwCT1kdvxnR2qWY=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.24.0 h1:890+mqQ+hTpNuw0gGP6/4akolQkSToDJgHfQE7AwGuk=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.24.0/go.mod h1:LNh45Br1YAkEKaAqvmE1m8FUx6a5b/V0oAKV7of29b4=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.24.1 h1:xAojnj+ktS95YZlDf0zxWBkbFtymPeDP+rvUQIH3uAU=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.24.1/go.mod h1:LNh45Br1YAkEKaAqvmE1m8FUx6a5b/V0oAKV7of29b4=
 github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws/protocol/eventstream v1.5.4 h1:OCs21ST2LrepDfD3lwlQiOqIGp6JiEUqG84GzTDoyJs=
 github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws/protocol/eventstream v1.5.4/go.mod h1:usURWEKSNNAcAZuzRn/9ZYPT8aZQkR7xcCtunK/LkJo=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config v1.26.1 h1:z6DqMxclFGL3Zfo+4Q0rLnAZ6yVkzCRxhRMsiRQnD1o=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config v1.26.1/go.mod h1:ZB+CuKHRbb5v5F0oJtGdhFTelmrxd4iWO1lf0rQwSAg=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.16.12 h1:v/WgB8NxprNvr5inKIiVVrXPuuTegM+K8nncFkr1usU=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.16.12/go.mod h1:X21k0FjEJe+/pauud82HYiQbEr9jRKY3kXEIQ4hXeTQ=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/ec2/imds v1.14.10 h1:w98BT5w+ao1/r5sUuiH6JkVzjowOKeOJRHERyy1vh58=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/ec2/imds v1.14.10/go.mod h1:K2WGI7vUvkIv1HoNbfBA1bvIZ+9kL3YVmWxeKuLQsiw=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.2.9 h1:v+HbZaCGmOwnTTVS86Fleq0vPzOd7tnJGbFhP0stNLs=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.2.9/go.mod h1:Xjqy+Nyj7VDLBtCMkQYOw1QYfAEZCVLrfI0ezve8wd4=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/endpoints/v2 v2.5.9 h1:N94sVhRACtXyVcjXxrwK1SKFIJrA9pOJ5yu2eSHnmls=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/endpoints/v2 v2.5.9/go.mod h1:hqamLz7g1/4EJP+GH5NBhcUMLjW+gKLQabgyz6/7WAU=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/ini v1.7.2 h1:GrSw8s0Gs/5zZ0SX+gX4zQjRnRsMJDJ2sLur1gRBhEM=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/ini v1.7.2/go.mod h1:6fQQgfuGmw8Al/3M2IgIllycxV7ZW7WCdVSqfBeUiCY=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/v4a v1.2.9 h1:ugD6qzjYtB7zM5PN/ZIeaAIyefPaD82G8+SJopgvUpw=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/v4a v1.2.9/go.mod h1:YD0aYBWCrPENpHolhKw2XDlTIWae2GKXT1T4o6N6hiM=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config v1.26.6 h1:Z/7w9bUqlRI0FFQpetVuFYEsjzE3h7fpU6HuGmfPL/o=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config v1.26.6/go.mod h1:uKU6cnDmYCvJ+pxO9S4cWDb2yWWIH5hra+32hVh1MI4=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.16.16 h1:8q6Rliyv0aUFAVtzaldUEcS+T5gbadPbWdV1WcAddK8=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.16.16/go.mod h1:UHVZrdUsv63hPXFo1H7c5fEneoVo9UXiz36QG1GEPi0=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/ec2/imds v1.14.11 h1:c5I5iH+DZcH3xOIMlz3/tCKJDaHFwYEmxvlh2fAcFo8=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/ec2/imds v1.14.11/go.mod h1:cRrYDYAMUohBJUtUnOhydaMHtiK/1NZ0Otc9lIb6O0Y=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/s3/manager v1.15.15 h1:2MUXyGW6dVaQz6aqycpbdLIH1NMcUI6kW6vQ0RabGYg=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/s3/manager v1.15.15/go.mod h1:aHbhbR6WEQgHAiRj41EQ2W47yOYwNtIkWTXmcAtYqj8=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.2.10 h1:vF+Zgd9s+H4vOXd5BMaPWykta2a6Ih0AKLq/X6NYKn4=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.2.10/go.mod h1:6BkRjejp/GR4411UGqkX8+wFMbFbqsUIimfK4XjOKR4=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/endpoints/v2 v2.5.10 h1:nYPe006ktcqUji8S2mqXf9c/7NdiKriOwMvWQHgYztw=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/endpoints/v2 v2.5.10/go.mod h1:6UV4SZkVvmODfXKql4LCbaZUpF7HO2BX38FgBf9ZOLw=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/ini v1.7.3 h1:n3GDfwqF2tzEkXlv5cuy4iy7LpKDtqDMcNLfZDu9rls=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/ini v1.7.3/go.mod h1:6fQQgfuGmw8Al/3M2IgIllycxV7ZW7WCdVSqfBeUiCY=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/v4a v1.2.10 h1:5oE2WzJE56/mVveuDZPJESKlg/00AaS2pY2QZcnxg4M=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/v4a v1.2.10/go.mod h1:FHbKWQtRBYUz4vO5WBWjzMD2by126ny5y/1EoaWoLfI=
 github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/accept-encoding v1.10.4 h1:/b31bi3YVNlkzkBrm9LfpaKoaYZUxIAj4sHfOTmLfqw=
 github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/accept-encoding v1.10.4/go.mod h1:2aGXHFmbInwgP9ZfpmdIfOELL79zhdNYNmReK8qDfdQ=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/checksum v1.2.9 h1:/90OR2XbSYfXucBMJ4U14wrjlfleq/0SB6dZDPncgmo=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/checksum v1.2.9/go.mod h1:dN/Of9/fNZet7UrQQ6kTDo/VSwKPIq94vjlU16bRARc=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/presigned-url v1.10.9 h1:Nf2sHxjMJR8CSImIVCONRi4g0Su3J+TSTbS7G0pUeMU=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/presigned-url v1.10.9/go.mod h1:idky4TER38YIjr2cADF1/ugFMKvZV7p//pVeV5LZbF0=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/s3shared v1.16.9 h1:iEAeF6YC3l4FzlJPP9H3Ko1TXpdjdqWffxXjp8SY6uk=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/s3shared v1.16.9/go.mod h1:kjsXoK23q9Z/tLBrckZLLyvjhZoS+AGrzqzUfEClvMM=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3 v1.47.5 h1:Keso8lIOS+IzI2MkPZyK6G0LYcK3My2LQ+T5bxghEAY=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3 v1.47.5/go.mod h1:vADO6Jn+Rq4nDtfwNjhgR84qkZwiC6FqCaXdw/kYwjA=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.18.5 h1:ldSFWz9tEHAwHNmjx2Cvy1MjP5/L9kNoR0skc6wyOOM=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.18.5/go.mod h1:CaFfXLYL376jgbP7VKC96uFcU8Rlavak0UlAwk1Dlhc=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/ssooidc v1.21.5 h1:2k9KmFawS63euAkY4/ixVNsYYwrwnd5fIvgEKkfZFNM=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/ssooidc v1.21.5/go.mod h1:W+nd4wWDVkSUIox9bacmkBP5NMFQeTJ/xqNabpzSR38=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.26.5 h1:5UYvv8JUvllZsRnfrcMQ+hJ9jNICmcgKPAO1CER25Wg=
-github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.26.5/go.mod h1:XX5gh4CB7wAs4KhcF46G6C8a2i7eupU19dcAAE+EydU=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/checksum v1.2.10 h1:L0ai8WICYHozIKK+OtPzVJBugL7culcuM4E4JOpIEm8=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/checksum v1.2.10/go.mod h1:byqfyxJBshFk0fF9YmK0M0ugIO8OWjzH2T3bPG4eGuA=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/presigned-url v1.10.10 h1:DBYTXwIGQSGs9w4jKm60F5dmCQ3EEruxdc0MFh+3EY4=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/presigned-url v1.10.10/go.mod h1:wohMUQiFdzo0NtxbBg0mSRGZ4vL3n0dKjLTINdcIino=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/s3shared v1.16.10 h1:KOxnQeWy5sXyS37fdKEvAsGHOr9fa/qvwxfJurR/BzE=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/internal/s3shared v1.16.10/go.mod h1:jMx5INQFYFYB3lQD9W0D8Ohgq6Wnl7NYOJ2TQndbulI=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3 v1.48.1 h1:5XNlsBsEvBZBMO6p82y+sqpWg8j5aBCe+5C2GBFgqBQ=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3 v1.48.1/go.mod h1:4qXHrG1Ne3VGIMZPCB8OjH/pLFO94sKABIusjh0KWPU=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.18.7 h1:eajuO3nykDPdYicLlP3AGgOyVN3MOlFmZv7WGTuJPow=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.18.7/go.mod h1:+mJNDdF+qiUlNKNC3fxn74WWNN+sOiGOEImje+3ScPM=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/ssooidc v1.21.7 h1:QPMJf+Jw8E1l7zqhZmMlFw6w1NmfkfiSK8mS4zOx3BA=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/ssooidc v1.21.7/go.mod h1:ykf3COxYI0UJmxcfcxcVuz7b6uADi1FkiUz6Eb7AgM8=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.26.7 h1:NzO4Vrau795RkUdSHKEwiR01FaGzGOH1EETJ+5QHnm0=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.26.7/go.mod h1:6h2YuIoxaMSCFf5fi1EgZAwdfkGMgDY+DVfa61uLe4U=
 github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.19.0 h1:KWFKQV80DpP3vJrrA9sVAHQ5gc2z8i4EzrLhLlWXcBM=
 github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.19.0/go.mod h1:NukqUGpCZIILqqiV0NIjeFh24kd/FAa4beRb6nbIUPE=
 github.com/aymanbagabas/go-osc52/v2 v2.0.1 h1:HwpRHbFMcZLEVr42D4p7XBqjyuxQH5SMiErDT4WkJ2k=
diff --git a/internal/conf/static.go b/internal/conf/static.go
index 87f70e88..fe6b515f 100644
--- a/internal/conf/static.go
+++ b/internal/conf/static.go
@@ -57,6 +57,7 @@ var (
 		SiteKey        string `ini:"site_key"`
 		ServerKey      string `ini:"server_key"`
 		TurnstileStyle bool   `ini:"turnstile_style"`
+		VerifyURL      string `ini:"verify_url"` // Optional: override verify URL (e.g. for testing)
 	}
 
 	Pixel struct {
diff --git a/internal/db/questions_test.go b/internal/db/questions_test.go
index 9312cab5..272fb31d 100644
--- a/internal/db/questions_test.go
+++ b/internal/db/questions_test.go
@@ -357,11 +357,50 @@ func testQuestionsUpdateCensor(t *testing.T, ctx context.Context, db *questions)
 		})
 		require.Nil(t, err)
 
-		err = db.DeleteByID(ctx, 1)
+		contentMetadata := []byte(`{"source_name":"aliyun","result":"pass"}`)
+		answerMetadata := []byte(`{"source_name":"qiniu","result":"review"}`)
+
+		err = db.UpdateCensor(ctx, 1, UpdateQuestionCensorOptions{
+			ContentCensorMetadata: contentMetadata,
+			AnswerCensorMetadata:  answerMetadata,
+		})
 		require.Nil(t, err)
 
-		_, err = db.GetByID(ctx, 1)
-		require.Equal(t, ErrQuestionNotExist, err)
+		got, err := db.GetByID(ctx, 1)
+		require.Nil(t, err)
+		require.JSONEq(t, string(contentMetadata), string(got.ContentCensorMetadata))
+		require.JSONEq(t, string(answerMetadata), string(got.AnswerCensorMetadata))
+	})
+
+	t.Run("invalid metadata should keep original value", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := db.Create(ctx, CreateQuestionOptions{
+			FromIP:            "114.5.1.4",
+			UserID:            1,
+			Content:           "Content - 2",
+			ReceiveReplyEmail: "i@github.red",
+			AskerUserID:       1,
+		})
+		require.Nil(t, err)
+
+		originContentMetadata := []byte(`{"source_name":"aliyun","result":"pass"}`)
+		originAnswerMetadata := []byte(`{"source_name":"qiniu","result":"pass"}`)
+
+		err = db.UpdateCensor(ctx, 2, UpdateQuestionCensorOptions{
+			ContentCensorMetadata: originContentMetadata,
+			AnswerCensorMetadata:  originAnswerMetadata,
+		})
+		require.Nil(t, err)
+
+		err = db.UpdateCensor(ctx, 2, UpdateQuestionCensorOptions{
+			ContentCensorMetadata: []byte(`null`),
+			AnswerCensorMetadata:  []byte(`{"source_name":}`),
+		})
+		require.Nil(t, err)
+
+		got, err := db.GetByID(ctx, 2)
+		require.Nil(t, err)
+		require.JSONEq(t, string(originContentMetadata), string(got.ContentCensorMetadata))
+		require.JSONEq(t, string(originAnswerMetadata), string(got.AnswerCensorMetadata))
 	})
 
 	t.Run("not found", func(t *testing.T) {
@@ -370,6 +409,26 @@ func testQuestionsUpdateCensor(t *testing.T, ctx context.Context, db *questions)
 	})
 }
 
+func TestCheckTextCensorResponseValid(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		name string
+		raw  []byte
+		want bool
+	}{
+		{name: "empty", raw: nil, want: false},
+		{name: "null", raw: []byte(`null`), want: false},
+		{name: "missing source", raw: []byte(`{"result":"pass"}`), want: false},
+		{name: "malformed", raw: []byte(`{"source_name":}`), want: false},
+		{name: "valid", raw: []byte(`{"source_name":"aliyun"}`), want: true},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			require.Equal(t, tc.want, checkTextCensorResponseValid(tc.raw))
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func testQuestionsCount(t *testing.T, ctx context.Context, db *questions) {
 	_, err := db.Create(ctx, CreateQuestionOptions{
 		FromIP:            "114.5.1.4",
diff --git a/internal/db/users_test.go b/internal/db/users_test.go
index 63fcfeeb..b1947938 100644
--- a/internal/db/users_test.go
+++ b/internal/db/users_test.go
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@ func TestUsers(t *testing.T) {
 		{"GetByEmail", testUsersGetByEmail},
 		{"GetByDomain", testUsersGetByDomain},
 		{"Update", testUsersUpdate},
+		{"SetName", testUsersSetName},
 		{"UpdateHarassmentSetting", testUsersUpdateHarassmentSetting},
 		{"Authenticate", testUsersAuthenticate},
 		{"ChangePassword", testUsersChangePassword},
@@ -264,6 +265,33 @@ func testUsersUpdate(t *testing.T, ctx context.Context, db *users) {
 	})
 }
 
+func testUsersSetName(t *testing.T, ctx context.Context, db *users) {
+	err := db.Create(ctx, CreateUserOptions{
+		Name:       "E99p1ant",
+		Password:   "super_secret",
+		Email:      "i@github.red",
+		Avatar:     "avater.png",
+		Domain:     "e99",
+		Background: "background.png",
+		Intro:      "Be cool, but also be warm.",
+	})
+	require.Nil(t, err)
+
+	t.Run("normal", func(t *testing.T) {
+		err := db.SetName(ctx, 1, "new-name")
+		require.Nil(t, err)
+
+		got, err := db.GetByID(ctx, 1)
+		require.Nil(t, err)
+		require.Equal(t, "new-name", got.Name)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("empty name", func(t *testing.T) {
+		err := db.SetName(ctx, 1, "   ")
+		require.EqualError(t, err, "name cannot be empty")
+	})
+}
+
 func testUsersUpdateHarassmentSetting(t *testing.T, ctx context.Context, db *users) {
 	err := db.Create(ctx, CreateUserOptions{
 		Name:       "E99p1ant",
diff --git a/internal/route/route.go b/internal/route/route.go
index 816cd42a..be336e0c 100644
--- a/internal/route/route.go
+++ b/internal/route/route.go
@@ -98,6 +98,9 @@ func New(db *gorm.DB) *flamego.Flame {
 			recaptcha.Options{
 				Secret: conf.Recaptcha.ServerKey,
 				VerifyURL: func() recaptcha.VerifyURL {
+					if conf.Recaptcha.VerifyURL != "" {
+						return recaptcha.VerifyURL(conf.Recaptcha.VerifyURL)
+					}
 					if conf.Recaptcha.TurnstileStyle {
 						// FYI: https://developers.cloudflare.com/turnstile/migration/migrating-from-recaptcha/
 						return "https://challenges.cloudflare.com/turnstile/v0/siteverify"
diff --git a/internal/route/user.go b/internal/route/user.go
index a740eaf9..88a1dad2 100644
--- a/internal/route/user.go
+++ b/internal/route/user.go
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws"
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/config"
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials"
+	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/s3/manager"
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3"
 	"github.com/flamego/recaptcha"
 	"github.com/pkg/errors"
@@ -300,7 +301,8 @@ func uploadImageFile(ctx context.Context, options uploadImageFileOptions) (*db.U
 	}
 
 	client := s3.NewFromConfig(cfg)
-	if _, err := client.PutObject(ctx.Request().Context(), &s3.PutObjectInput{
+	uploader := manager.NewUploader(client)
+	if _, err := uploader.Upload(ctx.Request().Context(), &s3.PutObjectInput{
 		Bucket:        aws.String(conf.Upload.ImageBucket),
 		Key:           aws.String(fileKey),
 		Body:          reader,
diff --git a/web/.env.e2e b/web/.env.e2e
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ac3fbced
--- /dev/null
+++ b/web/.env.e2e
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+VITE_EXTERNAL_URL=http://localhost:3000
+VITE_BASE_URL=/api
+VITE_RECAPTCHA_SITE_KEY=6LeIxAcTAAAAAJcZVRqyHh71UMIEGNQ_MXjiZKhI
+VITE_ICP=
+VITE_COMMIT_SHA=e2e
+
diff --git a/web/package.json b/web/package.json
index 4121a4f5..e826c8ad 100644
--- a/web/package.json
+++ b/web/package.json
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
   "type": "module",
   "scripts": {
     "dev": "vite",
+    "dev:e2e": "vite --mode e2e",
     "build": "vue-tsc -b && vite build",
     "preview": "vite preview"
   },
diff --git a/web/src/components/NewQuestion.vue b/web/src/components/NewQuestion.vue
index 02919a19..13624b3d 100644
--- a/web/src/components/NewQuestion.vue
+++ b/web/src/components/NewQuestion.vue
@@ -69,6 +69,7 @@ import {Form} from "vee-validate";
 import {ToastError} from "@/utils/notify.ts";
 import {type IReCaptchaComposition, useReCaptcha} from "vue-recaptcha-v3";
 import {useRoute} from "vue-router";
+import {ensureRecaptchaReady, getRecaptchaToken} from "@/utils/recaptcha.ts";
 
 const route = useRoute();
 
@@ -106,7 +107,7 @@ const successMessage = ref<string>('')
 
 onMounted(async () => {
   try {
-    await recaptchaLoaded()
+    await ensureRecaptchaReady({executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded})
     recaptchaReady.value = true
   } catch (error) {
     ToastError('无感验证码加载失败，请刷新页面重试')
@@ -114,8 +115,7 @@ onMounted(async () => {
 })
 const handleSubmit = async () => {
   try {
-    await recaptchaLoaded()
-    postQuestionForm.value.recaptcha = await executeRecaptcha('submit')
+    postQuestionForm.value.recaptcha = await getRecaptchaToken({executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded})
   } catch (error) {
     ToastError('无感验证码加载失败，请刷新页面重试')
     return
diff --git a/web/src/pages/auth/ForgotPassword.vue b/web/src/pages/auth/ForgotPassword.vue
index 170091eb..839973e4 100644
--- a/web/src/pages/auth/ForgotPassword.vue
+++ b/web/src/pages/auth/ForgotPassword.vue
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ import {type ForgotPasswordRequest, forgotPassword} from "@/api/auth.ts";
 import {useRouter} from "vue-router";
 import {type IReCaptchaComposition, useReCaptcha} from "vue-recaptcha-v3";
 import {ToastError, ToastSuccess} from "@/utils/notify.ts";
+import {ensureRecaptchaReady, getRecaptchaToken} from "@/utils/recaptcha.ts";
 
 const router = useRouter()
 const {executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded} = useReCaptcha() as IReCaptchaComposition
@@ -37,7 +38,7 @@ const forgotPasswordForm = ref<ForgotPasswordRequest>({
 
 onMounted(async () => {
   try {
-    await recaptchaLoaded()
+    await ensureRecaptchaReady({executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded})
     recaptchaReady.value = true
   } catch (error) {
     ToastError('无感验证码加载失败，请刷新页面重试')
@@ -45,8 +46,7 @@ onMounted(async () => {
 })
 const handleForgotPassword = async () => {
   try {
-    await recaptchaLoaded()
-    forgotPasswordForm.value.recaptcha = await executeRecaptcha('submit')
+    forgotPasswordForm.value.recaptcha = await getRecaptchaToken({executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded})
   } catch (error) {
     ToastError('无感验证码加载失败，请刷新页面重试')
     return
diff --git a/web/src/pages/auth/SignIn.vue b/web/src/pages/auth/SignIn.vue
index 4b339305..10ffa40c 100644
--- a/web/src/pages/auth/SignIn.vue
+++ b/web/src/pages/auth/SignIn.vue
@@ -35,6 +35,7 @@ import {useRoute, useRouter} from "vue-router";
 import {ToastError, ToastSuccess} from "@/utils/notify.ts";
 import {useAuthStore} from "@/store";
 import {type IReCaptchaComposition, useReCaptcha} from 'vue-recaptcha-v3'
+import {ensureRecaptchaReady, getRecaptchaToken} from '@/utils/recaptcha.ts'
 
 const route = useRoute()
 const router = useRouter()
@@ -51,7 +52,7 @@ const signInForm = ref<SignInRequest>({
 
 onMounted(async () => {
   try {
-    await recaptchaLoaded()
+    await ensureRecaptchaReady({executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded})
     recaptchaReady.value = true
   } catch (error) {
     ToastError('无感验证码加载失败，请刷新页面重试')
@@ -60,8 +61,7 @@ onMounted(async () => {
 
 const handleSignIn = async () => {
   try {
-    await recaptchaLoaded()
-    signInForm.value.recaptcha = await executeRecaptcha('submit')
+    signInForm.value.recaptcha = await getRecaptchaToken({executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded})
   } catch (error) {
     ToastError('无感验证码加载失败，请刷新页面重试')
     return
diff --git a/web/src/pages/auth/SignUp.vue b/web/src/pages/auth/SignUp.vue
index 29f3210a..59026757 100644
--- a/web/src/pages/auth/SignUp.vue
+++ b/web/src/pages/auth/SignUp.vue
@@ -51,6 +51,7 @@ import {ToastError, ToastSuccess} from "@/utils/notify.ts";
 import {type IReCaptchaComposition, useReCaptcha} from "vue-recaptcha-v3";
 import {useRouter} from "vue-router";
 import {ExternalURL} from "@/utils/consts.ts";
+import {ensureRecaptchaReady, getRecaptchaToken} from '@/utils/recaptcha.ts'
 
 const router = useRouter()
 const {executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded} = useReCaptcha() as IReCaptchaComposition
@@ -68,7 +69,7 @@ const signUpForm = ref<SignUpRequest>({
 
 onMounted(async () => {
   try {
-    await recaptchaLoaded()
+    await ensureRecaptchaReady({executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded})
     recaptchaReady.value = true
   } catch (error) {
     ToastError('无感验证码加载失败，请刷新页面重试')
@@ -77,8 +78,7 @@ onMounted(async () => {
 
 const handleSignUp = async () => {
   try {
-    await recaptchaLoaded()
-    signUpForm.value.recaptcha = await executeRecaptcha('submit')
+    signUpForm.value.recaptcha = await getRecaptchaToken({executeRecaptcha, recaptchaLoaded})
   } catch (error) {
     ToastError('无感验证码加载失败，请刷新页面重试')
     return
diff --git a/web/src/utils/recaptcha.ts b/web/src/utils/recaptcha.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..b020ef69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/web/src/utils/recaptcha.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+import type {IReCaptchaComposition} from 'vue-recaptcha-v3'
+
+const E2E_RECAPTCHA_TOKEN = 'e2e-test-token'
+const RECAPTCHA_TEST_SITE_KEY = '6LeIxAcTAAAAAJcZVRqyHh71UMIEGNQ_MXjiZKhI'
+
+type RecaptchaClient = Pick<IReCaptchaComposition, 'executeRecaptcha' | 'recaptchaLoaded'>
+
+export const isE2EMode = import.meta.env.MODE === 'e2e'
+export const isUsingRecaptchaTestKey = import.meta.env.VITE_RECAPTCHA_SITE_KEY === RECAPTCHA_TEST_SITE_KEY
+const shouldBypassRecaptcha = isE2EMode
+
+export async function ensureRecaptchaReady(recaptcha: RecaptchaClient) {
+    if (shouldBypassRecaptcha) {
+        return
+    }
+
+    await recaptcha.recaptchaLoaded()
+}
+
+export async function getRecaptchaToken(recaptcha: RecaptchaClient, action = 'submit') {
+    if (shouldBypassRecaptcha) {
+        return E2E_RECAPTCHA_TOKEN
+    }
+
+    await recaptcha.recaptchaLoaded()
+    return await recaptcha.executeRecaptcha(action)
+}